IAB                                                 T. Hain, Microsoft
Internet Draft
Document: draft-iab-nat-implications-02.txt               October 1998


                   Architectural Implications of NAT


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Abstract

   In light of the growing interest in, and deployment of network
   address translation (NAT) [RFC-1631], this paper will discuss some
   of the architectural implications and guidelines for
   implementations. It is assumed the reader is familiar with the
   address translation concepts presented in [RFC-1631].

Conventions used in this document

   The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
   "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED",  "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in
   this document are to be interpreted as described in [RFC-2119].









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Introduction

   In discussing the architectural impact of NATs [RFC-1631] on the
   Internet, the first task is defining the scope of the Internet. The
   most basic definition is; a concatenation of networks built using
   IETF defined technologies. This simple description does not
   distinguish between the public network known as the Internet, and
   the private networks built using the same technologies. An approach
   resolving this would be including the resources of Names or
   Addresses administered through IANA or its delegates. While this is
   more accurate, it still includes many private networks that have
   coordinated their names or addresses with the public Internet.

   Rekhter, et al [RFC-1918] defined hosts as public when they need
   network layer access outside the enterprise, using a globally
   unambiguous address. Those that need limited or no access are
   defined as private. Another way to view this is the transparency of
   the connection between any given node and the rest of the Internet.
   True transparency could be stated as; an unambiguous locator known
   by a node and identifiable by any other node participating in the
   public Internet, with no restrictions on packet delivery.

   The ultimate resolution of public or private is found in the intent
   of the network in question. Generally networks that use coordinated
   names and addresses, but do not intend to be part of the greater
   Internet will use some screening technology to insert a barrier.
   Historically barrier devices between the public and private networks
   were known as Firewalls or Application Gateways, and were managed to
   allow approved traffic while blocking everything else. Increasingly
   the screening technology is becoming a simple NAT, which manages the
   network locator between the public and private use address spaces.

   As noted by Carpenter, et al [RFC-2101], once private use addresses
   [RFC-1918] were deployed in the network, addresses were guaranteed
   to be ambiguous. At the same time when NATs were attached to the
   network, the process of resolving names to or from addresses gained
   a dependency on where the question was asked; thus both names and
   addresses became globally ambiguous. As private use addresses are by
   definition not part of the public infrastructure, and an unambiguous
   locator is required within a routing realm, NATs are clearly left
   sitting at the boundary of the Internet. Here they become another
   screening technology for connecting private networks.

   In one view, NAT is the feature which finally breaks the semantic
   overload of the IP address as both a locator and the end point
   identifier (EID). Another view of NAT is that of 'necessary evil',
   where there is a real concern that the technology is the weed which
   is destined to choke out continued development. In either case,
   there is no direct impact on the public Internet, since NATs sit at
   the boundary. This leaves the discussion focused on the impact on
   end-to-end communications between hosts that use the public Internet
   as a transport medium.


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   A significant factor in the success of the Internet is the
   flexibility derived from a few basic tenets. First and foremost is
   the End-to-End principle, which assumes the end points are in
   control of the communication and the network simply moves bits
   between these points. Restated, the data stream delivered by the
   transport protocol of the end points is of no concern to the lower
   layer packet routing devices and therefore may contain anything the
   end point applications consider appropriate. Another is that the
   network does not maintain per connection state information to allow
   fast rerouting around failures through parallel paths. Lack of state
   also removes any requirement for the network nodes to notify each
   other as connections are formed or dropped and enables
   connectionless transports. Furthermore, the end points are not, and
   need not be, aware of any network components other than the first
   hop router(s), name resolution service, and destination. Packet
   integrity is preserved through the network, and transport checksums
   are valid end to end.  NATs (particularly the port multiplexing
   variety) break most of these, reducing overall flexibility,
   increasing operational complexity, and impeding diagnostic
   capabilities.

Terminology

   Locator - the address within a packet directing its delivery within
   a routing realm.

   Routing realm - unambiguous address pool used by a contiguous
   collection of routers and end systems.

   End point identifier (EID) - used by one end system to identify the
   other end of a communication. Uniqueness is required only within the
   context of the originating end. Using the Domain Name System as a
   common database requires uniqueness throughout the Internet.

   NAT - segregates realms of routing information by connecting between
   and rewriting packet headers as necessary. A NAT does not interpret
   packet contents in any way.

   Application Gateway - segregates realms of transport information by
   terminating an application data stream then reconstructing packet
   contents as necessary before forwarding to the next destination.

   Firewall - blocks unauthorized end-to-end connections. Often used
   within a routing realm, firewalls adhere to forwarding rules but do
   not modify packet headers or contents.

   VPN - Virtual Private Network which technically treats an IP
   infrastructure as a multiplexing substrate allowing the end points
   to build virtual circuits to run another instance of IP over.





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Utility of NATs

   A quick look at the popularity of NAT technology shows that it
   addresses several real world problems.

   - Masking the address changes that take place, from either dial-
     access or provider changes, improves stability in the local
     network.
   - Globally routable addresses can be reused for intermittent access
     customers. This lowers the demand and utilization of addresses to
     the number of active nodes rather than the total number of nodes.
   - There is a potential that NATs would lower an ISP's support burden
     since there could be a consistent, simple device with a known
     configuration at the customer end of the access interface.
   - Breaking the Internet into a collection of routing realms would
     limit the scope of routing knowledge, and thereby the workload on
     the routers within each realm.
   - For applications which don't care about the integrity of the
     packet header, there are no changes necessary in the hosts.

   Taken together these are strong motivations for moving quickly with
   NAT deployment.

   Removing hosts that are not currently active lowers address demands
   of the public Internet, which improves the load on the routing
   system as well as lengthens the lifetime of the IPv4 address space.
   While this is a natural byproduct of the existing dynamic allocation
   dial access devices, in the dedicated connection case this service
   could be provided through a NAT. In the case of a port multiplexing
   NAT, the aggregation potential is even greater as multiple end
   systems share a single public address.

   Compartmentalizing routing knowledge and distributing the overhead
   by breaking a network into a collection of routing realms might
   improve its stability. It could also alleviate some of the pressure
   on the routing infrastructure causing ISP's to enforce artificial
   boundaries on how much detail they are willing to accept in routing
   updates. Since the details of adjacent routing realms could be
   completely masked, the level of aggregation possible would dwarf all
   prior efforts. The number of entries in the routing table would be
   reduced to the number of external attachments (albeit at the expense
   of increasing the NAT mapping table at each attachment point).
   Determination of the proper exit point is left as an exercise for
   the reader.

   NAT deployments should raise the awareness of protocol designers who
   are interested in ensuring that their protocols work end to end.
   Breaking the semantic overload of the IP address will force
   applications to find a more appropriate mechanism for end point
   identification and discourage carrying the locator in the data
   stream. Since this will not work for legacy applications, RFC-1631
   discusses how to look into the packet and make NAT transparent to
   the application (ie: create an application gateway).

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   Another popular practice is hiding a collection of hosts behind a
   single IP address. In many implementations this is architecturally a
   NAT, since the addresses are mapped to the real destination on the
   fly. When packet header integrity is not an issue, this type of
   virtual host requires no modifications to the remote applications
   since the end client is unaware of the mapping activity. While the
   virtual host has the CPU performance characteristics of the total
   set of machines, the overall performance is bounded by the
   processing and I/O capabilities of the NAT device as it funnels the
   packets back and forth.

Repercussion of NATs

   As noted earlier, NATs break the basic tenet of the Internet that
   the end points are in control of the communication. The greatest
   concern from the explosion of NATs is the impact on the fledgling
   efforts at deploying IP security. For lack of another globally
   unique EID, the traditional use of the IP address was assumed. This
   combination of required global uniqueness of the address, and
   assured ambiguity by NAT leaves the IPsec effort with a severely
   restricted working set.

   In a statement about the use of IPv4 today, RFC-2101 details
   architectural issues and notes:

       "... it has been considered more useful to deliver the packet,
       then worry about how to identify the end points, than to provide
       identity in a packet that cannot be delivered."

   This argument presumes that delivering the packet has an inherent
   value, even if the end points can't be identified. In a self-
   fulfillment of that prophecy, the applications developed to date are
   structured to assume packets will be delivered and identity is only
   assured in controlled environments. In many ways, this fundamental
   impediment to basic trust has been the stalling factor in deploying
   security across the Internet. In another note from RFC-2101:

       "Since IP Security authentication headers assume that the
       addresses in the network header are preserved end-to-end, it is
       not clear how one could support IP Security-based authentication
       between a pair of hosts communicating through either an ALG (ed:
       Application Level Gateway) or a NAT."

   A feature of stateful devices like NATs is the creation of a single
   point of failure. Attempts to avoid this by establishing redundant
   NATs, creates a new set of problems related to timely communication
   of the state. This encompasses several issues such as update
   frequency, performance impact of frequent updates, reliability of
   the state update transaction, a-priori knowledge of all nodes
   needing this state information, and notification to end nodes of
   appropriate path for each transaction.


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   It has been observed that operational management of networks
   incorporating stateful packet modifying device is considerably
   easier if inbound and outbound packets traverse the same path. While
   easy to say, it is difficult to manage even with careful planning.
   The problem is ensuring that routes advertised to the private side
   reach the end nodes and map to the same device as the public side
   route advertisements. In many cases this borders on the impossible,
   given the internal and external topology churn.

   Another major drawback of NAT technology is the process of resolving
   addresses from names, or names from addresses. When the public DNS
   is required to resolve a given host name on both sides of a NAT
   there is no obviously correct answer.

   In the example below it is not clear what answer DNS should return
   for Host D. Returning the local address will assure global
   invisibility, while returning the global address will prevent local
   access from Host C. If DNS were to return both, the results would be
   unpredictable. By knowing which side the request came from the DNS
   server could provide the correct answer, but significant development
   would be required to add the capability to DNS for source specific
   responses. (note: since Host A has no access to the DNS service it
   is required to maintain a local table, but the others may be
   expecting DNS to provide the appropriate resolution.)

   In the case where Hosts C & D share an address (either time shared
   or port multiplexed), there is no way Host B could know which it was
   connecting to. DNS would return a public side address for either,
   then it is up to the NAT to decide where the packets are eventually
   directed. Since Host B cannot rely on the fully qualified domain
   name to uniquely identify a specific host, the name space is
   fragmented, resulting in pockets of validity.

                  --------    ---        ---    --------
                 | Host A |--|NAT|------|NAT|--| Host B |
                  --------    ---        ---    --------
                                  \        \
                                    ---     --------      ---
                                   |NAT|---|Internet|----|DNS|
                                    ---     --------      ---
                                     |
                             -----------------
                               |          |
                           --------    --------
                          | Host C |  | Host D |
                           --------    --------

   Even if forward mappings are working, implementations that require
   an unambiguous reverse mapping from the in-addr.arpa tree will fail
   (diagnostic tools come to mind).




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   Discussions about an arbitrary mesh of NAT connections will
   ultimately exaggerate the issue of name space integration with the
   routing infrastructure and show that the only resolution to
   appropriately answer name queries in a NAT environment is to locate
   the DNS service within each NAT. This brings the additional
   complexity of knowing which NAT to look to for remote resolutions.
   Since most NATs are engineered to be auto configuring turnkey
   devices, and DNS has not been known for its auto configuring
   properties, this is not a particularly viable approach.

   One proposal to deal with locating the DNS service in each NAT is
   the DNS ALG (1). Rather than running the full DNS server in the NAT,
   it provides a mapping service by intercepting DNS messages and
   modifying the contents appropriately.

   The recent mass growth of the Internet has been driven by support of
   low cost publication via the web. The next big push appears to be
   support of Virtual Private Networks (VPNs). Technically VPNs treat
   an IP infrastructure as a multiplexing substrate allowing the end
   points to build what appear to be clear pathways from end to end.
   VPNs redefine network visibility and increase the likelihood of
   address collision when traversing NATs. Address management in the
   hidden space behind NATs will become a significant burden, as there
   is no central body capable of, or willing to do it. The lower burden
   for the ISP is actually a transfer of burden to the local level,
   because administration of addresses and names becomes both
   distributed and more complicated.

   As noted in RFC-1918, the merging of private address spaces can
   cause an overlap in address use, which creates a problem. VPNs will
   increase the likelihood and frequency of that merging through the
   simplicity of their establishment. There are several configurations
   of address overlap which will cause failure, but in the simple
   example shown below the private use address of Host B matches the
   private use address of the VPN pool used by Host A for inbound
   connections.  When Host B tries to establish the VPN, Host A will
   assign it an address from its pool for inbound connections, and
   identify the gateway for Host B to use. In the example, Host B will
   not be able to distinguish the VPN address of Host A from its own
   address so the connection will fail. Since private use addresses are
   by definition not coordinated, as the complexity of the VPN mesh
   increases so does the likelihood that there will be a collision
   which cannot be resolved.

              ---------------                     ----------------
             |  10.10.10.10  |--------VPN--------| Assigned by A  |
             |    Host A     |   ---       ---   |    Host B      |
             |    10.1.1.1   |--|NAT|-----|NAT|--|  10.10.10.10   |
              ---------------    ---       ---    ----------------


   ----------
   1 draft-ietf-nat-dns-alg-00.txt (work in progress 7/98)

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   The primary feature of NATs is the ability to simply connect private
   networks to the public Internet. When the private network exists
   prior to installing the NAT, it is unlikely and unnecessary that its
   name resolver would use a registered domain. Connecting the NAT
   device, and reconfiguring the resolver to proxy for all external
   requests allows access to the public network by hosts on the private
   network. Configuring the public DNS for the set of private hosts
   that need inbound connections would require a registered domain
   (either private, or from the connecting ISP) and a unique name. At
   this point the name space is partitioned as hosts would have
   different names based on inside vs. outside queries.

                          --------       --------
                         | Host A |     | Host B |
                         |   Foo  |-----|   Bar  |
                          --------   |   --------   ---
                                     |-------------|DNS|
                                    ---             ---
                                   |NAT|
                                    ---
                                     |
                                 --------      ---
                                |Internet|----|DNS|
                                 --------      ---
                                     |
                                    ---
                                   |NAT|
                                    ---             ---
                                     |-------------|DNS|
                          --------   |   --------   ---
                         | Host C |-----| Host D |
                         |   Foo  |     |   Bar  |
                          --------       --------

   Everything in this simple example will work until an application
   embeds a name. For example, a Web service running on Host D might
   present embedded URL's of the form http://bar/*.html, which would
   work from Host C, but would thoroughly confuse Host A. If the
   embedded name matched the public DNS, Host A would be happy, but
   Host C would not. To establish a connection from Host C, the NAT
   would have to look at the destination rather than simply forwarding
   the packet to a router (which would not send it back on the same
   interface it came from).

   NATs place constraints on the deployment of applications that carry
   IP addresses in the data stream. Applications or protocols that
   assume end to end integrity of the address will fail when traversing
   a NAT. The resolution to this is to provide an Application Level
   Gateway within or alongside each NAT. An additional gateway service
   is necessary for each application that may imbed an address. Even
   this approach will fail when requirement is end to end encryption
   since only the end points have access to the keys.


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   Finally, while the port multiplexing NATs (popular because they
   allow Internet access through a single address, thus lowering cost)
   work modestly well for private toward public connections, they
   create management problems for applications connecting from public
   toward private. Since only one private side system can be mapped
   through the single public side port number, applications like multi-
   player Internet games can only be played on one system at a time,
   and X-windows services relying on port 6000 need to be manually
   mapped to each target prior to connection.

IPv6 Considerations

   It has been argued that IPv6 is no longer necessary because NATs
   relieve the address space constraints and allow the Internet to
   continue growing. The reality is they point out the need for IPv6
   more clearly than ever. People are trying to connect multiple
   machines through a single access line to their ISP and have been
   willing to give up some functionality to get that at minimum cost.
   Frequently the reason for cost increases is the perceived scarcity
   (therefore increased value) of IPv4 addresses, which would be
   eliminated through deployment of IPv6. This crisis mentality is
   creating a market for a solution to a problem already solved with
   greater flexibility by IPv6.

   Beyond all of the above issues, the existence of NATs will
   complicate the integration of IPv6 in the Internet because the name
   space and end point addresses are not consistent and globally
   unique. While multiple addresses are less of a concern to an IPv6
   node, the disjoint name space will certainly make management
   interesting. If IPv6 nodes are willing to continue in private
   networks behind a NAT, they will only need a link local address and
   all of the issues become the same as IPv4. If the intent is to move
   into a public space as a feature of moving to IPv6, address and name
   administration will require explicit effort.

Security Considerations

   NATs break most implementation modes of IPsec, and therefore may
   stall further deployment of enhanced security across the Internet.
   It is difficult to identify all the combinations of header orderings
   and options that are possible using NATs, VPNs, and IPsec. It is
   even more difficult to clearly state which of those are applicable,
   or workable in any given context. For example, use of AH is not
   possible via NAT as the hash protects the IP address in the header.
   In some cases, authenticated certificates may contain the IP address
   as part of the subject name for authentication purposes. Encrypted
   Quick Mode structures may contain IP addresses and ports for policy
   verifications. While the Revised Mode of public key encryption
   includes the peer identity in the encrypted payload.

   It may be possible to engineer and work around NATs for IPsec on a
   case by case basis, but attempts to retrofit IPsec over and existing
   NAT infrastructure can be problematic. With all of the restrictions

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   placed on deployment flexibility, NATs present the greatest single
   threat to security integration being deployed in the Internet today.

   Security mechanisms that do not protect or rely on IP addresses as
   identifiers, such as TLS (2), SSL (3), or SSH (4) may operate in
   environments containing NATs. For applications that can establish
   and make use of this type of transport connection, NATs do not
   create any additional complications.


Guidelines

   Given that NAT devices are being deployed at a fairly rapid pace,
   some guidelines are in order. Most of these amount to 'think before
   you leap', then think again.

   - Determine the mechanism for name resolution, and ensure the
   appropriate answer is given for each routing realm. Embedding the
   DNS server, or its ALG in the NAT device will be more manageable
   than trying to synchronize independent DNS systems across realms.

   - Is the NAT configured for static one to one mappings, or will it
   dynamically manage them? If dynamic, make sure the TTL of the DNS
   responses is set to 0, and that the clients pay attention to the
   don't cache notification.

   - Examine the applications that will need to traverse the NAT and
   verify their immunity to address changes. If necessary provide an
   appropriate ALG or establish a VPN to isolate the application from
   the NAT.

   - Determine need for public toward private connections, variability
   of destinations on the private side, and potential for simultaneous
   use of public side port numbers. Avoid port NATs if these apply.

   - If there are encrypted payloads, the contents cannot be modified
   unless the NAT is a security end point acting as a gateway between
   security realms. This precludes end to end confidentiality, as the
   NAT becomes the security end point.

   - When using VPNs over NATs, identify a clearinghouse for addresses
   to avoid collisions.

   - Assure that applications that will be used both internally and
   externally either avoid embedding names, or use globally unique
   ones.


   ----------
   2 draft-ietf-tls-protocol-05.txt (work in progress 11/97)
   3 http://home.netscape.com/eng/ssl3/ssl-toc.html March 1996
   4 draft-ietf-secsh-architecture-02.txt


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Summary

   Wherever they are located topologically, NATs break a long-standing
   architectural principle that applications can trust packets to move
   between end points without modification beyond ttl or tos. Another
   design principle, 'keep-it-simple' is being overlooked as more
   features are added to the network to work around the complications
   created by NATs. In the end the overall flexibility and
   manageability are lowered while support costs go up dealing with the
   problems introduced.

   NATs are a 'fact of life', and will proliferate as an enhancement
   that sustains the existing IPv4 infrastructure. At the same time,
   they require strong applicability statements, clearly stating what
   works and what does not.

   NATs are a 'necessary evil' as well, and by fragmenting the Name
   Space, NATs create an administrative burden that is not easily
   resolved. More significantly, they inhibit the roll out of IPsec,
   which will in turn slow growth of applications that require a secure
   infrastructure. As such, NATs represent the single greatest threat
   to a secure Internet.

   An overview of the pluses and minuses:

NAT utility                         NAT repercussions
--------------------------------    --------------------------------
Masks Global Address Changes        Mandates Multiple Name Spaces
Routing realms distribute overhead  Requires source specific DNS reply
Lowers Address Utilization          Allows end-to-end address conflicts
Lowers ISP support burden           Increases local support burden
Breaks end-to-end association       Breaks end-to-end association
Transparent to end systems          Unique development for each app
Load sharing as virtual host        Performance impact with scale
Delays need for IPv4 replacement    Complicates integration of IPv6

   There have been many discussions lately about the value of
   continuing with IPv6 development when the market place is widely
   deploying IPv4 NATs. A short sighted view would miss the point that
   both have a role, because NATs address some real-world issues today,
   while IPv6 is targeted at solving fundamental problems, as well as
   moving forward. It should be recognized that there will be a long
   co-existence as applications and services develop for IPv6, while
   the lifetime of the existing IPv4 systems will likely be measured in
   decades. At their best, NATs are a diversion from forward motion,
   but they do enable wider participation at the present state. At
   their worst, they break an association that arguably should never
   have been made to begin with.

   There have also been many questions about the probability of VPNs
   being established which would raise some of the concerns listed
   above. While it is hard to predict the future, one way to avoid ALGs
   for each application is to establish a VPN over the NATs. This

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   restricts the NAT visibility to the headers of the tunnel packets,
   and removes its effects from all applications. While this solves the
   ALG issues, it raises the likelihood that there will be address
   collisions as arbitrary connections are established between
   uncoordinated address spaces.

   The IAB wants to remind everyone to focus on the goal, which is
   continued evolution of the Internet, and recognize continued
   development of IP (in all current and future versions) is the path.
   It has been noted that the success of the Internet is based on the
   'living' characteristic of IP. As in life, when growth, evolution,
   and forward progress stops, decay overtakes and destroys. History
   has shown that protocols that were 'complete and finished' as
   presented, have had very short lifetimes while those still 'a work
   in progress' manage to survive and continue moving ahead. All
   parties need to understand the significant role they are playing in
   pursuing the goal, and that none can get there without all the
   others.

References

   [RFC 1631], Egevang, K., Francis, P., "The IP Network Address
   Translator", RFC 1631, May 1994

   [RFC 1918], Rekhter, et al, "Address Allocation for Private
   Internets", RFC 1918 February 1996

   [RFC 2101], Carpenter, et al, "IPv4 Address Behavior Today", RFC
   2101, February 1997

   [RFC-2119], Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
   Requirement Levels", RFC 2119, March 1997

   draft-ietf-nat-dns-alg-00.txt, P. Srisuresh, et al, .DNS extensions
   to Network Address Translators., July 1998

   draft-ietf-tls-protocol-05.txt, T. Dierks, C. Allen, "The TLS
   Protocol", November 1997

   draft-ietf-secsh-architecture-02.txt, T. Ylonen, et al, "SSH
   Protocol Architecture", August 1998

Acknowledgments

   Valuable contributions to this draft came from the IAB, Yakov
   Rekhter(cisco) and Eliot Lear (cisco).

Author's Addresses

   Tony Hain
   Microsoft
   One Microsoft Way            Phone:  1-425-703-6619
   Redmond, Wa. USA             Email:  tonyhain@microsoft.com

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