Routing Area Working Group                                G. Enyedi, Ed.
Internet-Draft                                                A. Csaszar
Intended status: Informational                                  Ericsson
Expires: April 24, 2014                                    A. Atlas, Ed.
                                                               C. Bowers
                                                        Juniper Networks
                                                              A. Gopalan
                                                   University of Arizona
                                                        October 21, 2013


  Algorithms for computing Maximally Redundant Trees for IP/LDP Fast-
                                Reroute
                draft-enyedi-rtgwg-mrt-frr-algorithm-04

Abstract

   A complete solution for IP and LDP Fast-Reroute using Maximally
   Redundant Trees is presented in [I-D.ietf-rtgwg-mrt-frr-
   architecture].  This document defines the associated MRT Lowpoint
   algorithm that is used in the default MRT profile to compute both the
   necessary Maximally Redundant Trees with their associated next-hops
   and the alternates to select for MRT-FRR.

Status of This Memo

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   Copyright (c) 2013 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
   document authors.  All rights reserved.

   This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
   Provisions Relating to IETF Documents



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   (http://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of
   publication of this document.  Please review these documents
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Table of Contents

   1.  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
   2.  Terminology and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
   3.  Algorithm Key Concepts  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6
     3.1.  Partial Ordering for Disjoint Paths . . . . . . . . . . .   6
     3.2.  Finding an Ear and the Correct Direction  . . . . . . . .   8
     3.3.  Low-Point Values and Their Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
     3.4.  Blocks in a Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13
     3.5.  Determining Local-Root and Assigning Block-ID . . . . . .  15
   4.  Algorithm Sections  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16
     4.1.  MRT Island Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  17
     4.2.  Root Selection  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  18
     4.3.  Initialization  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  18
     4.4.  MRT Lowpoint Algorithm: Computing GADAG using lowpoint
           inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19
     4.5.  Augmenting the GADAG by directing all links . . . . . . .  21
     4.6.  Compute MRT next-hops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23
       4.6.1.  MRT next-hops to all nodes partially ordered with
               respect to the computing node . . . . . . . . . . . .  24
       4.6.2.  MRT next-hops to all nodes not partially ordered with
               respect to the computing node . . . . . . . . . . . .  24
       4.6.3.  Computing Redundant Tree next-hops in a 2-connected
               Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  25
       4.6.4.  Generalizing for graph that isn't 2-connected . . . .  27
       4.6.5.  Complete Algorithm to Compute MRT Next-Hops . . . . .  28
     4.7.  Identify MRT alternates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  30
     4.8.  Finding FRR Next-Hops for Proxy-Nodes . . . . . . . . . .  34
   5.  MRT Lowpoint Algorithm: Complete Specification  . . . . . . .  36
   6.  Algorithm Alternatives and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . .  37
     6.1.  Algorithm Evaluation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  37
   7.  Algorithm Work to Be Done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47
   8.  IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47
   9.  Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47
   10. References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47
     10.1.  Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47
     10.2.  Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47
   Appendix A.  Option 2: Computing GADAG using SPFs . . . . . . . .  49
   Appendix B.  Option 3: Computing GADAG using a hybrid method  . .  53
   Authors' Addresses  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  55



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1.  Introduction

   MRT Fast-Reroute requires that packets can be forwarded not only on
   the shortest-path tree, but also on two Maximally Redundant Trees
   (MRTs), referred to as the MRT-Blue and the MRT-Red.  A router which
   experiences a local failure must also have pre-determined which
   alternate to use.  This document defines how to compute these three
   things for use in MRT-FRR and describes the algorithm design
   decisions and rationale.  The algorithm is based on those presented
   in [MRTLinear] and expanded in [EnyediThesis].

   Just as packets routed on a hop-by-hop basis require that each router
   compute a shortest-path tree which is consistent, it is necessary for
   each router to compute the MRT-Blue next-hops and MRT-Red next-hops
   in a consistent fashion.  This document defines the MRT Lowpoint
   algorithm to be used as a standard in the default MRT profile for
   MRT-FRR.

   As now, a router's FIB will contain primary next-hops for the current
   shortest-path tree for forwarding traffic.  In addition, a router's
   FIB will contain primary next-hops for the MRT-Blue for forwarding
   received traffic on the MRT-Blue and primary next-hops for the MRT-
   Red for forwarding received traffic on the MRT-Red.

   What alternate next-hops a point-of-local-repair (PLR) selects need
   not be consistent - but loops must be prevented.  To reduce
   congestion, it is possible for multiple alternate next-hops to be
   selected; in the context of MRT alternates, each of those alternate
   next-hops would be equal-cost paths.

   This document defines an algorithm for selecting an appropriate MRT
   alternate for consideration.  Other alternates, e.g. LFAs that are
   downstream paths, may be prefered when available and that policy-
   based alternate selection process[I-D.ietf-rtgwg-lfa-manageability]
   is not captured in this document.

   [E]---[D]---|           [E]<--[D]<--|                [E]-->[D]
    |     |    |            |     ^    |                       |
    |     |    |            V     |    |                       V
   [R]   [F]  [C]          [R]   [F]  [C]               [R]   [F]  [C]
    |     |    |                  ^                      ^     |    |
    |     |    |                  |                      |     V    |
   [A]---[B]---|           [A]-->[B]                    [A]---[B]<--|

         (a)                     (b)                         (c)
   a 2-connected graph     MRT-Blue towards R          MRT-Red towards R

                                 Figure 1



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   Algorithms for computing MRTs can handle arbitrary network topologies
   where the whole network graph is not 2-connected, as in Figure 2, as
   well as the easier case where the network graph is 2-connected
   (Figure 1).  Each MRT is a spanning tree.  The pair of MRTs provide
   two paths from every node X to the root of the MRTs.  Those paths
   share the minimum number of nodes and the minimum number of links.
   Each such shared node is a cut-vertex.  Any shared links are cut-
   links.

                        [E]---[D]---|     |---[J]
                         |     |    |     |    |
                         |     |    |     |    |
                        [R]   [F]  [C]---[G]   |
                         |     |    |     |    |
                         |     |    |     |    |
                        [A]---[B]---|     |---[H]

                       (a) a graph that isn't 2-connected

         [E]<--[D]<--|         [J]        [E]-->[D]---|     |---[J]
          |     ^    |          |                |    |     |    ^
          V     |    |          |                V    V     V    |
         [R]   [F]  [C]<--[G]   |         [R]   [F]  [C]<--[G]   |
                ^    ^     ^    |          ^     |    |          |
                |    |     |    V          |     V    |          |
         [A]-->[B]---|     |---[H]        [A]<--[B]<--|         [H]

          (b) MRT-Blue towards R          (c) MRT-Red towards R

                                 Figure 2

2.  Terminology and Definitions

   network graph:   A graph that reflects the network topology where all
      links connect exactly two nodes and broadcast links have been
      transformed into the standard pseudo-node representation.

   Redundant Trees (RT):  A pair of trees where the path from any node X
      to the root R on the first tree is node-disjoint with the path
      from the same node X to the root along the second tree.  These can
      be computed in 2-connected graphs.

   Maximally Redundant Trees (MRT):   A pair of trees where the path
      from any node X to the root R along the first tree and the path
      from the same node X to the root along the second tree share the
      minimum number of nodes and the minimum number of links.  Each
      such shared node is a cut-vertex.  Any shared links are cut-links.
      Any RT is an MRT but many MRTs are not RTs.



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   MRT-Red:   MRT-Red is used to describe one of the two MRTs; it is
      used to described the associated forwarding topology and MT-ID.
      Specifically, MRT-Red is the decreasing MRT where links in the
      GADAG are taken in the direction from a higher topologically
      ordered node to a lower one.

   MRT-Blue:   MRT-Blue is used to describe one of the two MRTs; it is
      used to described the associated forwarding topology and MT-ID.
      Specifically, MRT-Blue is the increasing MRT where links in the
      GADAG are taken in the direction from a lower topologically
      ordered node to a higher one.

   cut-vertex:   A vertex whose removal partitions the network.

   cut-link:   A link whose removal partitions the network.  A cut-link
      by definition must be connected between two cut-vertices.  If
      there are multiple parallel links, then they are referred to as
      cut-links in this document if removing the set of parallel links
      would partition the network.

   2-connected:   A graph that has no cut-vertices.  This is a graph
      that requires two nodes to be removed before the network is
      partitioned.

   spanning tree:   A tree containing links that connects all nodes in
      the network graph.

   back-edge:   In the context of a spanning tree computed via a depth-
      first search, a back-edge is a link that connects a descendant of
      a node x with an ancestor of x.

   2-connected cluster:   A maximal set of nodes that are 2-connected.
      In a network graph with at least one cut-vertex, there will be
      multiple 2-connected clusters.

   block:   Either a 2-connected cluster, a cut-edge, or an isolated
      vertex.

   DAG:   Directed Acyclic Graph - a digraph containing no directed
      cycle.

   ADAG:   Almost Directed Acyclic Graph - a digraph that can be
      transformed into a DAG whith removing a single node (the root
      node).

   GADAG:   Generalized ADAG - a digraph, which has only ADAGs as all of
      its blocks.  The root of such a block is the node closest to the
      global root (e.g. with uniform link costs).



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   DFS:    Depth-First Search

   DFS ancestor:    A node n is a DFS ancestor of x if n is on the DFS-
      tree path from the DFS root to x.

   DFS descendant:    A node n is a DFS descendant of x if x is on the
      DFS-tree path from the DFS root to n.

   ear:    A path along not-yet-included-in-the-GADAG nodes that starts
      at a node that is already-included-in-the-GADAG and that ends at a
      node that is already-included-in-the-GADAG.  The starting and
      ending nodes may be the same node if it is a cut-vertex.

   X >> Y or Y << X:   Indicates the relationship between X and Y in a
      partial order, such as found in a GADAG.  X >> Y means that X is
      higher in the partial order than Y.  Y << X means that Y is lower
      in the partial order than X.

   X > Y or Y < X:   Indicates the relationship between X and Y in the
      total order, such as found via a topological sort.  X > Y means
      that X is higher in the total order than Y.  Y < X means that Y is
      lower in the total order than X.

   proxy-node:   A node added to the network graph to represent a multi-
      homed prefix or routers outside the local MRT-fast-reroute-
      supporting island of routers.  The key property of proxy-nodes is
      that traffic cannot transit them.

3.  Algorithm Key Concepts

   There are five key concepts that are critical for understanding the
   MRT Lowpoint algorithm and other algorithms for computing MRTs.  The
   first is the idea of partially ordering the nodes in a network graph
   with regard to each other and to the GADAG root.  The second is the
   idea of finding an ear of nodes and adding them in the correct
   direction.  The third is the idea of a Low-Point value and how it can
   be used to identify cut-vertices and to find a second path towards
   the root.  The fourth is the idea that a non-2-connected graph is
   made up of blocks, where a block is a 2-connected cluster, a cut-edge
   or an isolated node.  The fifth is the idea of a local-root for each
   node; this is used to compute ADAGs in each block.

3.1.  Partial Ordering for Disjoint Paths

   Given any two nodes X and Y in a graph, a particular total order
   means that either X < Y or X > Y in that total order.  An example
   would be a graph where the nodes are ranked based upon their unique
   IP loopback addresses.  In a partial order, there may be some nodes



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   for which it can't be determined whether X << Y or X >> Y.  A partial
   order can be captured in a directed graph, as shown in Figure 3.  In
   a graphical representation, a link directed from X to Y indicates
   that X is a neighbor of Y in the network graph and X << Y.


         [A]<---[R]    [E]       R << A << B << C << D << E
          |             ^        R << A << B << F << G << H << D << E
          |             |
          V             |        Unspecified Relationships:
         [B]--->[C]--->[D]             C and F
          |             ^              C and G
          |             |              C and H
          V             |
         [F]--->[G]--->[H]


             Figure 3: Directed Graph showing a Partial Order

   To compute MRTs, the root of the MRTs is at both the very bottom and
   the very top of the partial ordering.  This means that from any node
   X, one can pick nodes higher in the order until the root is reached.
   Similarly, from any node X, one can pick nodes lower in the order
   until the root is reached.  For instance, in Figure 4, from G the
   higher nodes picked can be traced by following the directed links and
   are H, D, E and R.  Similarly, from G the lower nodes picked can be
   traced by reversing the directed links and are F, B, A, and R.  A
   graph that represents this modified partial order is no longer a DAG;
   it is termed an Almost DAG (ADAG) because if the links directed to
   the root were removed, it would be a DAG.


     [A]<---[R]<---[E]      R << A << B << C << R
      |      ^      ^       R << A << B << C << D << E << R
      |      |      |       R << A << B << F << G << H << D << E << R
      V      |      |
     [B]--->[C]--->[D]      Unspecified Relationships:
      |             ^              C and F
      |             |              C and G
      V             |              C and H
     [F]--->[G]--->[H]


     Figure 4: ADAG showing a Partial Order with R lowest and highest







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   Most importantly, if a node Y >> X, then Y can only appear on the
   increasing path from X to the root and never on the decreasing path.
   Similarly, if a node Z << X, then Z can only appear on the decreasing
   path from X to the root and never on the inceasing path.

   When following the increasing paths, it is possible to pick multiple
   higher nodes and still have the certainty that those paths will be
   disjoint from the decreasing paths.  E.g. in the previous example
   node B has multiple possibilities to forward packets along an
   increasing path: it can either forward packets to C or F.

3.2.  Finding an Ear and the Correct Direction

   For simplicity, the basic idea of creating a GADAG by adding ears is
   described assuming that the network graph is a single 2-connected
   cluster so that an ADAG is sufficient.  Generalizing to multiple
   blocks is done by considering the block-roots instead of the GADAG
   root - and the actual algorithm is given in Section 4.4.

   In order to understand the basic idea of finding an ADAG, first
   suppose that we have already a partial ADAG, which doesn't contain
   all the nodes in the block yet, and we want to extend it to cover all
   the nodes.  Suppose that we find a path from a node X to Y such that
   X and Y are already contained by our partial ADAG, but all the
   remaining nodes along the path are not added to the ADAG yet.  We
   refer to such a path as an ear.

   Recall that our ADAG is closely related to a partial order, more
   precisely, if we remove root R, the remaining DAG describes a partial
   order of the nodes.  If we suppose that neither X nor Y is the root,
   we may be able to compare them.  If one of them is definitely lesser
   with respect to our partial order (say X<<Y), we can add the new path
   to the ADAG in a direction from X to Y. As an example consider Figure
   5.

           E---D---|              E<--D---|           E<--D<--|
           |   |   |              |   ^   |           |   ^   |
           |   |   |              V   |   |           V   |   |
           R   F   C              R   F   C           R   F   C
           |   |   |              |   ^   |           |   ^   ^
           |   |   |              V   |   |           V   |   |
           A---B---|              A-->B---|           A-->B---|

              (a)                    (b)                 (c)

                            (a) A 2-connected graph
                      (b) Partial ADAG (C is not included)
           (c) Resulting ADAG after adding path (or ear) B-C-D



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                                 Figure 5

   In this partial ADAG, node C is not yet included.  However, we can
   find path B-C-D, where both endpoints are contained by this partial
   ADAG (we say those nodes are *ready* in the sequel), and the
   remaining node (node C) is not contained yet.  If we remove R, the
   remaining DAG defines a partial order, and with respect to this
   partial order we can say that B<<D, so we can add the path to the
   ADAG in the direction from B to D (arcs B->C and C->D are added).  If
   B were strictly greater than D, we would add the same path in reverse
   direction.

   If in the partial order where an ear's two ends are X and Y, X << Y,
   then there must already be a directed path from X to Y already in the
   ADAG.  The ear must be added in a direction such that it doesn't
   create a cycle; therefore the ear must go from X to Y.

   In the case, when X and Y are not ordered with each other, we can
   select either direction for the ear.  We have no restriction since
   neither of the directions can result in a cycle.  In the corner case
   when one of the endpoints of an ear, say X, is the root (recall that
   the two endpoints must be different), we could use both directions
   again for the ear because the root can be considered both as smaller
   and as greater than Y. However, we strictly pick that direction in
   which the root is lower than Y.  The logic for this decision is
   explained in Section 4.6

   A partial ADAG is started by finding a cycle from the root R back to
   itself.  This can be done by selecting a non-ready neighbor N of R
   and then finding a path from N to R that doesn't use any links
   between R and N.  The direction of the cycle can be assigned either
   way since it is starting the ordering.

   Once a partial ADAG is already present, we can always add ears to it:
   just select a non-ready neighbor N of a ready node Q, such that Q is
   not the root, find a path from N to the root in the graph with Q
   removed.  This path is an ear where the first node of the ear is Q,
   the next is N, then the path until the first ready node the path
   reached (that second ready node is the other endpoint of the path).
   Since the graph is 2-connected, there must be a path from N to R
   without Q.










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   It is always possible to select a non-ready neighbor N of a ready
   node Q so that Q is not the root R.  Because the network is
   2-connected, N must be connected to two different nodes and only one
   can be R.  Because the initial cycle has already been added to the
   ADAG, there are ready nodes that are not R. Since the graph is
   2-connected, while there are non-ready nodes, there must be a non-
   ready neighbor N of a ready node that is not R.

   Generic_Find_Ears_ADAG(root)
      Create an empty ADAG.  Add root to the ADAG.
      Mark root as IN_GADAG.
      Select an arbitrary cycle containing root.
      Add the arbitrary cycle to the ADAG.
      Mark cycle's nodes as IN_GADAG.
      Add cycle's non-root nodes to process_list.
      while there exists connected nodes in graph that are not IN_GADAG
         Select a new ear.  Let its endpoints be X and Y.
         if Y is root or (Y << X)
            add the ear towards X to the ADAG
         else // (a) X is root or (b)X << Y or (c) X, Y not ordered
            Add the ear towards Y to the ADAG

      Figure 6: Generic Algorithm to find ears and their direction in
                             2-connected graph

   Algorithm Figure 6 merely requires that a cycle or ear be selected
   without specifying how.  Regardless of the way of selecting the path,
   we will get an ADAG.  The method used for finding and selecting the
   ears is important; shorter ears result in shorter paths along the
   MRTs.  The MRT Lowpoint algorithm's method using Low-Point
   Inheritance is defined in Section 4.4.  Other methods are described
   in the Appendices (Appendix A and Appendix B).

   As an example, consider Figure 5 again.  First, we select the
   shortest cycle containing R, which can be R-A-B-F-D-E (uniform link
   costs were assumed), so we get to the situation depicted in Figure 5
   (b).  Finally, we find a node next to a ready node; that must be node
   C and assume we reached it from ready node B. We search a path from C
   to R without B in the original graph.  The first ready node along
   this is node D, so the open ear is B-C-D. Since B<<D, we add arc B->C
   and C->D to the ADAG.  Since all the nodes are ready, we stop at this
   point.









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3.3.  Low-Point Values and Their Uses

   A basic way of computing a spanning tree on a network graph is to run
   a depth-first-search, such as given in Figure 7.  This tree has the
   important property that if there is a link (x, n), then either n is a
   DFS ancestor of x or n is a DFS descendant of x.  In other words,
   either n is on the path from the root to x or x is on the path from
   the root to n.

                        global_variable: dfs_number

                        DFS_Visit(node x, node parent)
                           D(x) = dfs_number
                           dfs_number += 1
                           x.dfs_parent = parent
                           for each link (x, w)
                             if D(w) is not set
                               DFS_Visit(w, x)

                        Run_DFS(node root)
                           dfs_number = 0
                           DFS_Visit(root, NONE)

               Figure 7: Basic Depth-First Search algorithm

   Given a node x, one can compute the minimal DFS number of the
   neighbours of x, i.e. min( D(w) if (x,w) is a link).  This gives the
   highest attachment point neighbouring x.  What is interesting,
   though, is what is the highest attachment point from x and x's
   descendants.  This is what is determined by computing the Low-Point
   value, as given in Algorithm Figure 9 and illustrated on a graph in
   Figure 8.

            [E]---|    [J]-------[I]   [P]---[O]
             |    |     |         |     |     |
             |    |     |         |     |     |
            [R]  [D]---[C]--[F]  [H]---[K]   [N]
             |          |    |    |     |     |
             |          |    |    |     |     |
            [A]--------[B]  [G]---|    [L]---[M]

               (a) a non-2-connected graph

             [E]----|    [J]---------[I]    [P]------[O]
            (5, )   |  (10, )       (9, ) (16,  ) (15,  )
              |     |     |           |      |        |
              |     |     |           |      |        |
             [R]   [D]---[C]---[F]   [H]----[K]      [N]



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            (0, ) (4, ) (3, ) (6, ) (8, ) (11, )  (14, )
              |           |     |     |      |        |
              |           |     |     |      |        |
             [A]---------[B]   [G]----|     [L]------[M]
            (1, )       (2, ) (7, )       (12,  )  (13,  )

               (b) with DFS values assigned   (D(x), L(x))

             [E]----|    [J]---------[I]    [P]------[O]
            (5,0)   |  (10,3)       (9,3) (16,11) (15,11)
              |     |     |           |      |        |
              |     |     |           |      |        |
             [R]   [D]---[C]---[F]   [H]----[K]      [N]
            (0, ) (4,0) (3,0) (6,3) (8,3) (11,11) (14,11)
              |           |     |     |      |        |
              |           |     |     |      |        |
             [A]---------[B]   [G]----|     [L]------[M]
            (1,0)       (2,0) (7,3)       (12,11)  (13,11)

                (c) with low-point values assigned (D(x), L(x))


                                 Figure 8

            global_variable: dfs_number

            Lowpoint_Visit(node x, node parent, interface p_to_x)
               D(x) = dfs_number
               L(x) = D(x)
               dfs_number += 1
               x.dfs_parent = parent
               x.dfs_parent_intf = p_to_x
               x.lowpoint_parent = NONE
               for each interface intf of x:
                 if D(intf.remote_node) is not set
                   Lowpoint_Visit(intf.remote_node, x, intf)
                   if L(intf.remote_node) < L(x)
                      L(x) = L(intf.remote_node)
                      x.lowpoint_parent = intf.remote_node
                      x.lowpoint_parent_intf = intf
                 else if intf.remote_node is not parent
                   if D(intf.remote_node) < L(x)
                     L(x) = D(intf.remote)
                     x.lowpoint_parent = intf.remote_node
                     x.lowpoint_parent_intf = intf

            Run_Lowpoint(node root)
               dfs_number = 0



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               Lowpoint_Visit(root, NONE, NONE)

                    Figure 9: Computing Low-Point value

   From the low-point value and lowpoint parent, there are two very
   useful things which motivate our computation.

   First, if there is a child c of x such that L(c) >= D(x), then there
   are no paths in the network graph that go from c or its descendants
   to an ancestor of x - and therefore x is a cut-vertex.  This is
   useful because it allows identification of the cut-vertices and thus
   the blocks.  As seen in Figure 8, even if L(x) < D(x), there may be a
   block that contains both the root and a DFS-child of a node while
   other DFS-children might be in different blocks.  In this example,
   C's child D is in the same block as R while F is not.

   Second, by repeatedly following the path given by lowpoint_parent,
   there is a path from x back to an ancestor of x that does not use the
   link [x, x.dfs_parent] in either direction.  The full path need not
   be taken, but this gives a way of finding an initial cycle and then
   ears.

3.4.  Blocks in a Graph

   A key idea for an MRT algorithm is that any non-2-connected graph is
   made up by blocks (e.g. 2-connected clusters, cut-links, and/or
   isolated nodes).  To compute GADAGs and thus MRTs, computation is
   done in each block to compute ADAGs or Redundant Trees and then those
   ADAGs or Redundant Trees are combined into a GADAG or MRT.

                [E]---|    [J]-------[I]   [P]---[O]
                 |    |     |         |     |     |
                 |    |     |         |     |     |
                [R]  [D]---[C]--[F]  [H]---[K]   [N]
                 |          |    |    |     |     |
                 |          |    |    |     |     |
                [A]--------[B]  [G]---|    [L]---[M]

                (a)  A graph with four blocks that are:
                     3 2-connected clusters and a cut-link


                [E]<--|    [J]<------[I]   [P]<--[O]
                 |    |     |         ^     |     ^
                 V    |     V         |     V     |
                [R]  [D]<--[C]  [F]  [H]<---[K]  [N]
                            ^    |    ^           ^
                            |    V    |           |



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                [A]------->[B]  [G]---|     [L]-->[M]

                            (b) MRT-Blue


                [E]---|    [J]-------->[I]    [P]-->[O]
                      |                 |            |
                      V                 V            V
                [R]  [D]-->[C]<---[F]  [H]<---[K]   [N]
                 ^          |      ^    |      ^     |
                 |          V      |    |      |     V
                [A]<-------[B]    [G]<--|     [L]<--[M]

                            (c) MRT-Red


                                 Figure 10

   Consider the example depicted in Figure 10 (a).  In this figure, a
   special graph is presented, showing us all the ways 2-connected
   clusters can be connected.  It has four blocks: block 1 contains R,
   A, B, C, D, E, block 2 contains C, F, G, H, I, J, block 3 contains K,
   L, M, N, O, P, and block 4 is a cut-edge containing H and K.  As can
   be observed, the first two blocks have one common node (node C) and
   blocks 2 and 3 do not have any common node, but they are connected
   through a cut-edge that is block 4.  No two blocks can have more than
   one common node, since two blocks with at least 2 common nodes would
   qualify as a single 2-connected cluster.

   Moreover, observe that if we want to get from one block to another,
   we must use a cut-vertex (the cut-vertices in this graph are C, H,
   K), regardless of the path selected, so we can say that all the paths
   from block 3 along the MRTs rooted at R will cross K first.  This
   observation means that if we want to find a pair of MRTs rooted at R,
   then we need to build up a pair of RTs in block 3 with K as a root.
   Similarly, we need to find another one in block 2 with C as a root,
   and finally, we need the last one in block 1 with R as a root.  When
   all the trees are selected, we can simply combine them; when a block
   is a cut-edge (as in block 4), that cut-edge is added in the same
   direction to both of the trees.  The resulting trees are depicted in
   Figure 10 (b) and (c).

   Similarly, to create a GADAG it is sufficient to compute ADAGs in
   each block and connect them.

   It is necessary, therefore, to identify the cut-vertices, the blocks
   and identify the appropriate local-root to use for each block.




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3.5.  Determining Local-Root and Assigning Block-ID

   Each node in a network graph has a local-root, which is the cut-
   vertex (or root) in the same block that is closest to the root.  The
   local-root is used to determine whether two nodes share a common
   block.

               Compute_Localroot(node x, node localroot)
                   x.localroot = localroot
                   for each DFS child c
                       if L(c) < D(x)   //x is not a cut-vertex
                           Compute_Localroot(c, x.localroot)
                       else
                           mark x as cut-vertex
                           Compute_Localroot(c, x)

               Compute_Localroot(root, root)

               Figure 11: A method for computing local-roots

   There are two different ways of computing the local-root for each
   node.  The stand-alone method is given in Figure 11 and better
   illustrates the concept; it is used by the MRT algorithms given in
   the Appendices Appendix A and Appendix B.  The method for local-root
   computation is used in the MRT Lowpoint algorithm for computing a
   GADAG using Low-Point inheritance and the essence of it is given in
   Figure 12.

            Get the current node, s.
            Compute an ear(either through lowpoint inheritance
            or by following dfs parents) from s to a ready node e.
            (Thus, s is not e, if there is such ear.)
            if s is e
               for each node x in the ear that is not s
                   x.localroot = s
            else
               for each node x in the ear that is not s or e
                   x.localroot = e.localroot

           Figure 12: Ear-based method for computing local-roots

   Once the local-roots are known, two nodes X and Y are in a common
   block if and only if one of the following three conditions apply.

   o  Y's local-root is X's local-root : They are in the same block and
      neither is the cut-vertex closest to the root.





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   o  Y's local-root is X: X is the cut-vertex closest to the root for
      Y's block

   o  Y is X's local-root: Y is the cut-vertex closest to the root for
      X's block

   Once we have computed the local-root for each node in the network
   graph, we can assign for each node, a block id that represents the
   block in which the node is present.  This computation is shown in
   Figure 13.

                 global_var: max_block_id

                 Assign_Block_ID(x, cur_block_id)
                   x.block_id = cur_block_id
                   foreach DFS child c of x
                      if (c.local_root is x)
                         max_block_id += 1
                         Assign_Block_ID(c, max_block_id)
                      else
                        Assign_Block_ID(c, cur_block_id)

                 max_block_id = 0
                 Assign_Block_ID(root, max_block_id)

             Figure 13: Assigning block id to identify blocks

4.  Algorithm Sections

   This algorithm computes one GADAG that is then used by a router to
   determine its MRT-Blue and MRT-Red next-hops to all destinations.
   Finally, based upon that information, alternates are selected for
   each next-hop to each destination.  The different parts of this
   algorithm are described below.  These work on a network graph after,
   for instance, its interfaces are ordered as per Figure 14.

   1.  Compute the local MRT Island for the particular MRT Profile.
       [See Section 4.1.]

   2.  Select the root to use for the GADAG.  [See Section 4.2.]

   3.  Initialize all interfaces to UNDIRECTED.  [See Section 4.3.]

   4.  Compute the DFS value,e.g. D(x), and lowpoint value, L(x).  [See
       Figure 9.]

   5.  Construct the GADAG.  [See Section 4.4]




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   6.  Assign directions to all interfaces that are still UNDIRECTED.
       [See Section 4.5.]

   7.  From the computing router x, compute the next-hops for the MRT-
       Blue and MRT-Red. [See Section 4.6.]

   8.  Identify alternates for each next-hop to each destination by
       determining which one of the blue MRT and the red MRT the
       computing router x should select.  [See Section 4.7.]

   To ensure consistency in computation, all routers MUST order
   interfaces identically.  This is necessary for the DFS, where the
   selection order of the interfaces to explore results in different
   trees, and for computing the GADAG, where the selection order of the
   interfaces to use to form ears can result in different GADAGs.  The
   required ordering between two interfaces from the same router x is
   given in Figure 14.

    Interface_Compare(interface a, interface b)
      if a.metric < b.metric
         return A_LESS_THAN_B
      if b.metric < a.metric
         return B_LESS_THAN_A
      if a.neighbor.loopback_addr < b.neighbor.loopback_addr
         return A_LESS_THAN_B
      if b.neighbor.loopback_addr < a.neighbor.loopback_addr
         return B_LESS_THAN_A
      // Same metric to same node, so the order doesn't matter anymore.
      // To have a unique, consistent total order,
      // tie-break based on, for example, the link's linkData as
      // distributed in an OSPF Router-LSA
      if a.link_data < b.link_data
         return A_LESS_THAN_B
      return B_LESS_THAN_A

   Figure 14: Rules for ranking multiple interfaces.  Order is from low
                                 to high.

4.1.  MRT Island Identification

   The local MRT Island for a particular MRT profile can be determined
   by starting from the computing router in the network graph and doing
   a breadth-first-search (BFS), exploring only links that aren't MRT-
   ineligible.

      MRT_Island_Identification(topology, computing_rtr, profile_id)
        for all routers in topology
            rtr.IN_MRT_ISLAND = FALSE



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        computing_rtr.IN_MRT_ISLAND = TRUE
        explore_list = { computing_rtr }
        while (explore_list is not empty)
           next_rtr = remove_head(explore_list)
           for each interface in next_rtr
              if interface is not MRT-ineligible
                 if ((interface.remote_node supports profile_id) and
                     (interface.remote_node.IN_MRT_ISLAND is FALSE))
                    interface.remote_node.IN_MRT_ISLAND = TRUE
                    add_to_tail(explore_list, interface.remote_node)

                   Figure 15: MRT Island Identification

4.2.  Root Selection

   In [I-D.atlas-ospf-mrt], a mechanism is given for routers to
   advertise the GADAG Root Selection Priority and consistently select a
   GADAG Root inside the local MRT Island.  Before beginning
   computation, the network graph is reduced to contain only the set of
   routers that support the specific MRT profile whose MRTs are being
   computed.

   Off-line analysis that considers the centrality of a router may help
   determine how good a choice a particular router is for the role of
   GADAG root.

4.3.  Initialization

   Before running the algorithm, there is the standard type of
   initialization to be done, such as clearing any computed DFS-values,
   lowpoint-values, DFS-parents, lowpoint-parents, any MRT-computed
   next-hops, and flags associated with algorithm.

   It is assumed that a regular SPF computation has been run so that the
   primary next-hops from the computing router to each destination are
   known.  This is required for determining alternates at the last step.

   Initially, all interfaces must be initialized to UNDIRECTED.  Whether
   they are OUTGOING, INCOMING or both is determined when the GADAG is
   constructed and augmented.

   It is possible that some links and nodes will be marked as unusable,
   whether because of configuration, IGP flooding (e.g. MRT-ineligible
   links in [I-D.atlas-ospf-mrt]), overload, or due to a transient cause
   such as [RFC3137].  In the algorithm description, it is assumed that
   such links and nodes will not be explored or used and no more
   discussion is given of this restriction.




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4.4.  MRT Lowpoint Algorithm: Computing GADAG using lowpoint inheritance

   As discussed in Section 3.2, it is necessary to find ears from a node
   x that is already in the GADAG (known as IN_GADAG).  There are two
   methods to find ears; both are required.  The first is by going to a
   not IN_GADAG DFS-child and then following the chain of low-point
   parents until an IN_GADAG node is found.  The second is by going to a
   not IN_GADAG neighbor and then following the chain of DFS parents
   until an IN_GADAG node is found.  As an ear is found, the associated
   interfaces are marked based on the direction taken.  The nodes in the
   ear are marked as IN_GADAG.  In the algorithm, first the ears via
   DFS-children are found and then the ears via DFS-neighbors are found.

   By adding both types of ears when an IN_GADAG node is processed, all
   ears that connect to that node are found.  The order in which the
   IN_GADAG nodes is processed is, of course, key to the algorithm.  The
   order is a stack of ears so the most recent ear is found at the top
   of the stack.  Of course, the stack stores nodes and not ears, so an
   ordered list of nodes, from the first node in the ear to the last
   node in the ear, is created as the ear is explored and then that list
   is pushed onto the stack.

   Each ear represents a partial order (see Figure 4) and processing the
   nodes in order along each ear ensures that all ears connecting to a
   node are found before a node higher in the partial order has its ears
   explored.  This means that the direction of the links in the ear is
   always from the node x being processed towards the other end of the
   ear.  Additionally, by using a stack of ears, this means that any
   unprocessed nodes in previous ears can only be ordered higher than
   nodes in the ears below it on the stack.

   In this algorithm that depends upon Low-Point inheritance, it is
   necessary that every node have a low-point parent that is not itself.
   If a node is a cut-vertex, that may not yet be the case.  Therefore,
   any nodes without a low-point parent will have their low-point parent
   set to their DFS parent and their low-point value set to the DFS-
   value of their parent.  This assignment also properly allows an ear
   between two cut-vertices.

   Finally, the algorithm simultaneously computes each node's local-
   root, as described in Figure 12.  This is further elaborated as
   follows.  The local-root can be inherited from the node at the end of
   the ear unless the end of the ear is x itself, in which case the
   local-root for all the nodes in the ear would be x. This is because
   whenever the first cycle is found in a block, or an ear involving a
   bridge is computed, the cut-vertex closest to the root would be x
   itself.  In all other scenarios, the properties of lowpoint/dfs
   parents ensure that the end of the ear will be in the same block, and



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   thus inheriting its local-root would be the correct local-root for
   all newly added nodes.

   The pseudo-code for the GADAG algorithm (assuming that the adjustment
   of lowpoint for cut-vertices has been made) is shown in Figure 16.

           Construct_Ear(x, Stack, intf, type)
              ear_list = empty
              cur_node = intf.remote_node
              cur_intf = intf
              not_done = true

              while not_done
                 cur_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
                 cur_intf.OUTGOING = true
                 cur_intf.remote_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
                 cur_intf.remote_intf.INCOMING = true

                 if cur_node.IN_GADAG is false
                    cur_node.IN_GADAG = true
                    add_to_list_end(ear_list, cur_node)
                    if type is CHILD
                       cur_intf = cur_node.lowpoint_parent_intf
                       cur_node = cur_node.lowpoint_parent
                    else type must be NEIGHBOR
                       cur_intf = cur_node.dfs_parent_intf
                       cur_node = cur_node.dfs_parent
                 else
                    not_done = false

              if (type is CHILD) and (cur_node is x)
                 //x is a cut-vertex and the local root for
                 //the block in which the ear is computed
                 localroot = x
              else
                 // Inherit local-root from the end of the ear
                 localroot = cur_node.localroot
              while ear_list is not empty
                 y = remove_end_item_from_list(ear_list)
                 y.localroot = localroot
                 push(Stack, y)

           Construct_GADAG_via_Lowpoint(topology, root)
             root.IN_GADAG = true
             root.localroot = root
             Initialize Stack to empty
             push root onto Stack
             while (Stack is not empty)



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                x = pop(Stack)
                foreach interface intf of x
                   if ((intf.remote_node.IN_GADAG == false) and
                       (intf.remote_node.dfs_parent is x))
                       Construct_Ear(x, Stack, intf, CHILD)
                foreach interface intf of x
                   if ((intf.remote_node.IN_GADAG == false) and
                       (intf.remote_node.dfs_parent is not x))
                       Construct_Ear(x, Stack, intf, NEIGHBOR)

           Construct_GADAG_via_Lowpoint(topology, root)

             Figure 16: Low-point Inheritance GADAG algorithm

4.5.  Augmenting the GADAG by directing all links

   The GADAG, regardless of the algorithm used to construct it, at this
   point could be used to find MRTs but the topology does not include
   all links in the network graph.  That has two impacts.  First, there
   might be shorter paths that respect the GADAG partial ordering and so
   the alternate paths would not be as short as possible.  Second, there
   may be additional paths between a router x and the root that are not
   included in the GADAG.  Including those provides potentially more
   bandwidth to traffic flowing on the alternates and may reduce
   congestion compared to just using the GADAG as currently constructed.

   The goal is thus to assign direction to every remaining link marked
   as UNDIRECTED to improve the paths and number of paths found when the
   MRTs are computed.

   To do this, we need to establish a total order that respects the
   partial order described by the GADAG.  This can be done using Kahn's
   topological sort[Kahn_1962_topo_sort] which essentially assigns a
   number to a node x only after all nodes before it (e.g. with a link
   incoming to x) have had their numbers assigned.  The only issue with
   the topological sort is that it works on DAGs and not ADAGs or
   GADAGs.

   To convert a GADAG to a DAG, it is necessary to remove all links that
   point to a root of block from within that block.  That provides the
   necessary conversion to a DAG and then a topological sort can be
   done.  Finally, all UNDIRECTED links are assigned a direction based
   upon the partial ordering.  Any UNDIRECTED links that connect to a
   root of a block from within that block are assigned a direction
   INCOMING to that root.  The exact details of this whole process are
   captured in Figure 17





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      Set_Block_Root_Incoming_Links(topo, root, mark_or_clear)
         foreach node x in topo
            if node x is a cut-vertex or root
               foreach interface i of x
                  if (i.remote_node.localroot is x)
                     if i.UNDIRECTED
                        i.OUTGOING = true
                        i.remote_intf.INCOMING = true
                        i.UNDIRECTED = false
                        i.remote_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
                     if i.INCOMING
                        if mark_or_clear is mark
                           if i.OUTGOING  // a cut-edge
                              i.STORE_INCOMING = true
                              i.INCOMING = false
                              i.remote_intf.STORE_OUTGOING = true
                              i.remote_intf.OUTGOING = false
                           i.TEMP_UNUSABLE = true
                           i.remote_intf.TEMP_UNUSABLE = true
                        else
                           i.TEMP_UNUSABLE = false
                           i.remote_intf.TEMP_UNUSABLE = false
                     if i.STORE_INCOMING and (mark_or_clear is clear)
                        i.INCOMING = true
                        i.STORE_INCOMING = false
                        i.remote_intf.OUTGOING = true
                        i.remote_intf.STORE_OUTGOING = false

      Run_Topological_Sort_GADAG(topo, root)
         Set_Block_Root_Incoming_Links(topo, root, MARK)
         foreach node x
           set x.unvisited to the count of x's incoming interfaces
              that aren't marked TEMP_UNUSABLE
         Initialize working_list to empty
         Initialize topo_order_list to empty
         add_to_list_end(working_list, root)
         while working_list is not empty
            y = remove_start_item_from_list(working_list)
            add_to_list_end(topo_order_list, y)
            foreach interface i of y
                if (i.OUTGOING) and (not i.TEMP_UNUSABLE)
                   i.remote_node.unvisited -= 1
                   if i.remote_node.unvisited is 0
                       add_to_list_end(working_list, i.remote_node)
          next_topo_order = 1
          while topo_order_list is not empty
              y = remove_start_item_from_list(topo_order_list)
              y.topo_order = next_topo_order



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              next_topo_order += 1
          Set_Block_Root_Incoming_Links(topo, root, CLEAR)

      Add_Undirected_Links(topo, root)
          Run_Topological_Sort_GADAG(topo, root)
          foreach node x in topo
            foreach interface i of x
               if i.UNDIRECTED
                 if x.topo_order < i.remote_node.topo_order
                    i.OUTGOING = true
                    i.UNDIRECTED = false
                    i.remote_intf.INCOMING = true
                    i.remote_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
                 else
                    i.INCOMING = true
                    i.UNDIRECTED = false
                    i.remote_intf.OUTGOING = true
                    i.remote_intf.UNDIRECTED = false

      Add_Undirected_Links(topo, root)

            Figure 17: Assigning direction to UNDIRECTED links

   Proxy-nodes do not need to be added to the network graph.  They
   cannot be transited and do not affect the MRTs that are computed.
   The details of how the MRT-Blue and MRT-Red next-hops are computed
   and how the appropriate alternate next-hops are selected is given in
   Section 4.8.

4.6.  Compute MRT next-hops

   As was discussed in Section 3.1, once a ADAG is found, it is
   straightforward to find the next-hops from any node X to the ADAG
   root.  However, in this algorithm, we want to reuse the common GADAG
   and find not only the one pair of MRTs rooted at the GADAG root with
   it, but find a pair rooted at each node.  This is useful since it is
   significantly faster to compute.  It may also provide easier
   troubleshooting of the MRT-Red and MRT-Blue.

   The method for computing differently rooted MRTs from the common
   GADAG is based on two ideas.  First, if two nodes X and Y are ordered
   with respect to each other in the partial order, then an SPF along
   OUTGOING links (an increasing-SPF) and an SPF along INCOMING links (a
   decreasing-SPF) can be used to find the increasing and decreasing
   paths.  Second, if two nodes X and Y aren't ordered with respect to
   each other in the partial order, then intermediary nodes can be used
   to create the paths by increasing/decreasing to the intermediary and
   then decreasing/increasing to reach Y.



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   As usual, the two basic ideas will be discussed assuming the network
   is two-connected.  The generalization to multiple blocks is discussed
   in Section 4.6.4.  The full algorithm is given in Section 4.6.5.

4.6.1.  MRT next-hops to all nodes partially ordered with respect to the
        computing node

   To find two node-disjoint paths from the computing router X to any
   node Y, depends upon whether Y >> X or Y << X.  As shown in Figure
   18, if Y >> X, then there is an increasing path that goes from X to Y
   without crossing R; this contains nodes in the interval [X,Y].  There
   is also a decreasing path that decreases towards R and then decreases
   from R to Y; this contains nodes in the interval [X,R-small] or
   [R-great,Y].  The two paths cannot have common nodes other than X and
   Y.


                     [Y]<---(Cloud 2)<--- [X]
                      |                    ^
                      |                    |
                      V                    |
                   (Cloud 3)--->[R]--->(Cloud 1)

                  MRT-Blue path: X->Cloud 2->Y
                  MRT-Red path: X->Cloud 1->R->Cloud 3->Y

                             Figure 18: Y >> X

   Similar logic applies if Y << X, as shown in Figure 19.  In this
   case, the increasing path from X increases to R and then increases
   from R to Y to use nodes in the intervals [X,R-great] and [R-small,
   Y].  The decreasing path from X reaches Y without crossing R and uses
   nodes in the interval [Y,X].


                    [X]<---(Cloud 2)<--- [Y]
                     |                    ^
                     |                    |
                     V                    |
                  (Cloud 3)--->[R]--->(Cloud 1)

                 MRT-Blue path: X->Cloud 3->R->Cloud 1->Y
                 MRT-Red path: X->Cloud 2->Y

                             Figure 19: Y << X

4.6.2.  MRT next-hops to all nodes not partially ordered with respect to
        the computing node



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   When X and Y are not ordered, the first path should increase until we
   get to a node G, where G >> Y. At G, we need to decrease to Y. The
   other path should be just the opposite: we must decrease until we get
   to a node H, where H << Y, and then increase.  Since R is smaller and
   greater than Y, such G and H must exist.  It is also easy to see that
   these two paths must be node disjoint: the first path contains nodes
   in interval [X,G] and [Y,G], while the second path contains nodes in
   interval [H,X] and [H,Y].  This is illustrated in Figure 20.  It is
   necessary to decrease and then increase for the MRT-Blue and increase
   and then decrease for the MRT-Red; if one simply increased for one
   and decreased for the other, then both paths would go through the
   root R.


                 (Cloud 6)<---[Y]<---(Cloud 5)<------------|
                   |                                       |
                   |                                       |
                   V                                       |
                  [G]--->(Cloud 4)--->[R]--->(Cloud 1)--->[H]
                   ^                                       |
                   |                                       |
                   |                                       |
                  (Cloud 3)<---[X]<---(Cloud 2)<-----------|

              MRT-Blue path: decrease to H and increase to Y
                   X->Cloud 2->H->Cloud 5->Y
              MRT-Red path:  increase to G and decrease to Y
                   X->Cloud 3->G->Cloud 6->Y

                       Figure 20: X and Y unordered

   This gives disjoint paths as long as G and H are not the same node.
   Since G >> Y and H << Y, if G and H could be the same node, that
   would have to be the root R. This is not possible because there is
   only one incoming interface to the root R which is created when the
   initial cycle is found.  Recall from Figure 6 that whenever an ear
   was found to have an end that was the root R, the ear was directed
   from R so that the associated interface on R is outgoing and not
   incoming.  Therefore, there must be exactly one node M which is the
   largest one before R, so the MRT-Red path will never reach R; it will
   turn at M and decrease to Y.

4.6.3.  Computing Redundant Tree next-hops in a 2-connected Graph

   The basic ideas for computing RT next-hops in a 2-connected graph
   were given in Section 4.6.1 and Section 4.6.2.  Given these two
   ideas, how can we find the trees?




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   If some node X only wants to find the next-hops (which is usually the
   case for IP networks), it is enough to find which nodes are greater
   and less than X, and which are not ordered; this can be done by
   running an increasing-SPF and a decreasing-SPF rooted at X and not
   exploring any links from the ADAG root.  ( Traversal algorithms other
   than SPF could safely be used instead where one traversal takes the
   links in their given directions and the other reverses the links'
   directions.)

   An increasing-SPF rooted at X and not exploring links from the root
   will find the increasing next-hops to all Y >> X.  Those increasing
   next-hops are X's next-hops on the MRT-Blue to reach Y.  An
   decreasing-SPF rooted at X and not exploring links from the root will
   find the decreasing next-hops to all Z << X.  Those decreasing next-
   hops are X's next-hops on the MRT-Red to reach Z.  Since the root R
   is both greater than and less than X, after this increasing-SPF and
   decreasing-SPF, X's next-hops on the MRT-Blue and on the MRT-Red to
   reach R are known.  For every node Y >> X, X's next-hops on the MRT-
   Red to reach Y are set to those on the MRT-Red to reach R.  For every
   node Z << X, X's next-hops on the MRT-Blue to reach Z are set to
   those on the MRT-Blue to reach R.

   For those nodes, which were not reached, we have the next-hops as
   well.  The increasing MRT-Blue next-hop for a node, which is not
   ordered, is the next-hop along the decreasing MRT-Red towards R and
   the decreasing MRT-Red next-hop is the next-hop along the increasing
   MRT-Blue towards R. Naturally, since R is ordered with respect to all
   the nodes, there will always be an increasing and a decreasing path
   towards it.  This algorithm does not provide the complete specific
   path taken but just the appropriate next-hops to use.  The identity
   of G and H is not determined.

   The final case to considered is when the root R computes its own
   next-hops.  Since the root R is << all other nodes, running an
   increasing-SPF rooted at R will reach all other nodes; the MRT-Blue
   next-hops are those found with this increasing-SPF.  Similarly, since
   the root R is >> all other nodes, running a decreasing-SPF rooted at
   R will reach all other nodes; the MRT-Red next-hops are those found
   with this decreasing-SPF.

                 E---D---|              E<--D<--|
                 |   |   |              |   ^   |
                 |   |   |              V   |   |
                 R   F   C              R   F   C
                 |   |   |              |   ^   ^
                 |   |   |              V   |   |
                 A---B---|              A-->B---|




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                    (a)                    (b)
            A 2-connected graph    A spanning ADAG rooted at R

                                 Figure 21

   As an example consider the situation depicted in Figure 21.  There
   node C runs an increasing-SPF and a decreasing-SPF The increasing-SPF
   reaches D, E and R and the decreasing-SPF reaches B, A and R. So
   towards E the increasing next-hop is D (it was reached though D), and
   the decreasing next-hop is B (since R was reached though B).  Since
   both D and B, A and R will compute the next hops similarly, the
   packets will reach E.

   We have the next-hops towards F as well: since F is not ordered with
   respect to C, the MRT-Blue next-hop is the decreasing one towards R
   (which is B) and the MRT-Red next-hop is the increasing one towards R
   (which is D).  Since B is ordered with F, it will find, for its MRT-
   Blue, a real increasing next-hop, so packet forwarded to B will get
   to F on path C-B-F. Similarly, D will have, for its MRT-Red, a real
   decreasing next-hop, and the packet will use path C-D-F.

4.6.4.  Generalizing for graph that isn't 2-connected

   If a graph isn't 2-connected, then the basic approach given in
   Section 4.6.3 needs some extensions to determine the appropriate MRT
   next-hops to use for destinations outside the computing router X's
   blocks.  In order to find a pair of maximally redundant trees in that
   graph we need to find a pair of RTs in each of the blocks (the root
   of these trees will be discussed later), and combine them.

   When computing the MRT next-hops from a router X, there are three
   basic differences:

   1.  Only nodes in a common block with X should be explored in the
       increasing-SPF and decreasing-SPF.

   2.  Instead of using the GADAG root, X's local-root should be used.
       This has the following implications:

       a.  The links from X's local-root should not be explored.

       b.  If a node is explored in the outgoing SPF so Y >> X, then X's
           MRT-Red next-hops to reach Y uses X's MRT-Red next-hops to
           reach X's local-root and if Z << X, then X's MRT-Blue next-
           hops to reach Z uses X's MRT-Blue next-hops to reach X's
           local-root.





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       c.  If a node W in a common block with X was not reached in the
           increasing-SPF or decreasing-SPF, then W is unordered with
           respect to X.  X's MRT-Blue next-hops to W are X's decreasing
           aka MRT-Red next-hops to X's local-root.  X's MRT-Red next-
           hops to W are X's increasing aka Blue MRT next-hops to X's
           local-root.

   3.  For nodes in different blocks, the next-hops must be inherited
       via the relevant cut-vertex.

   These are all captured in the detailed algorithm given in
   Section 4.6.5.

4.6.5.  Complete Algorithm to Compute MRT Next-Hops

   The complete algorithm to compute MRT Next-Hops for a particular
   router X is given in Figure 22.  In addition to computing the MRT-
   Blue next-hops and MRT-Red next-hops used by X to reach each node Y,
   the algorithm also stores an "order_proxy", which is the proper cut-
   vertex to reach Y if it is outside the block, and which is used later
   in deciding whether the MRT-Blue or the MRT-Red can provide an
   acceptable alternate for a particular primary next-hop.

   In_Common_Block(x, y)
     if (((x.localroot is y.localroot) and (x.block_id is y.block_id))
          or (x is y.localroot) or (y is x.localroot))
        return true
     return false

   Store_Results(y, direction, spf_root, store_nhs)
      if direction is FORWARD
         y.higher = true
         if store_nhs
            y.blue_next_hops = y.next_hops
      if direction is REVERSE
         y.lower = true
         if store_nhs
            y.red_next_hops = y.next_hops

   SPF_No_Traverse_Root(spf_root, block_root, direction, store_nhs)
      Initialize spf_heap to empty
      Initialize nodes' spf_metric to infinity and next_hops to empty
      spf_root.spf_metric = 0
      insert(spf_heap, spf_root)
      while (spf_heap is not empty)
          min_node = remove_lowest(spf_heap)
          Store_Results(min_node, direction, spf_root, store_nhs)
          if ((min_node is spf_root) or (min_node is not block_root))



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             foreach interface intf of min_node
                if (((direction is FORWARD) and intf.OUTGOING) or
                    ((direction is REVERSE) and intf.INCOMING)  and
                   In_Common_Block(spf_root, intf.remote_node))
                   path_metric = min_node.spf_metric + intf.metric
                   if path_metric < intf.remote_node.spf_metric
                      intf.remote_node.spf_metric = path_metric
                      if min_node is spf_root
                        intf.remote_node.next_hops = make_list(intf)
                      else
                        intf.remote_node.next_hops = min_node.next_hops
                      insert_or_update(spf_heap, intf.remote_node)
                   else if path_metric is intf.remote_node.spf_metric
                      if min_node is spf_root
                         add_to_list(intf.remote_node.next_hops, intf)
                      else
                         add_list_to_list(intf.remote_node.next_hops,
                                          min_node.next_hops)

   SetEdge(y)
     if y.blue_next_hops is empty and y.red_next_hops is empty
        if (y.local_root != y) {
           SetEdge(y.localroot)
        }
        y.blue_next_hops = y.localroot.blue_next_hops
        y.red_next_hops = y.localroot.red_next_hops
        y.order_proxy = y.localroot.order_proxy

   Compute_MRT_NextHops(x, root)
      foreach node y
        y.higher = y.lower = false
        clear y.red_next_hops and y.blue_next_hops
        y.order_proxy = y
      SPF_No_Traverse_Root(x, x.localroot, FORWARD, TRUE)
      SPF_No_Traverse_Root(x, x.localroot, REVERSE, TRUE)

      // red and blue next-hops are stored to x.localroot as different
      // paths are found via the SPF and reverse-SPF.
      // Similarly any nodes whose local-root is x will have their
      // red_next_hops and blue_next_hops already set.

      // Handle nodes in the same block that aren't the local-root
      foreach node y
        if (y.IN_MRT_ISLAND and (y is not x) and
            (y.localroot is x.localroot) and
            ((y is x.localroot) or (x is y.localroot) or
             (y.block_id is x.block_id)))
           if y.higher



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              y.red_next_hops = x.localroot.red_next_hops
           else if y.lower
              y.blue_next_hops = x.localroot.blue_next_hops
           else
              y.blue_next_hops = x.localroot.red_next_hops
              y.red_next_hops = x.localroot.blue_next_hops

      // Inherit next-hops and order_proxies to other components
      if x is not root
         root.blue_next_hops = x.localroot.blue_next_hops
         root.red_next_hops = x.localroot.red_next_hops
         root.order_proxy = x.localroot
      foreach node y
         if (y is not root) and (y is not x) and y.IN_MRT_ISLAND
           SetEdge(y)

   max_block_id = 0
   Assign_Block_ID(root, max_block_id)
   Compute_MRT_NextHops(x, root)

                                 Figure 22

4.7.  Identify MRT alternates

   At this point, a computing router S knows its MRT-Blue next-hops and
   MRT-Red next-hops for each destination in the MRT Island.  The
   primary next-hops along the SPT are also known.  It remains to
   determine for each primary next-hop to a destination D, which of the
   MRTs avoids the primary next-hop node F. This computation depends
   upon data set in Compute_MRT_NextHops such as each node y's
   y.blue_next_hops, y.red_next_hops, y.order_proxy, y.higher, y.lower
   and topo_orders.  Recall that any router knows only which are the
   nodes greater and lesser than itself, but it cannot decide the
   relation between any two given nodes easily; that is why we need
   topological ordering.

   For each primary next-hop node F to each destination D, S can call
   Select_Alternates(S, D, F, primary_intf) to determine whether to use
   the MRT-Blue next-hops as the alternate next-hop(s) for that primary
   next hop or to use the MRT-Red next-hops.  The algorithm is given in
   Figure 23 and discussed afterwards.


   Select_Alternates_Internal(S, D, F, primary_intf,
                              D_lower, D_higher, D_topo_order)

       //When D==F, we can do only link protection
       if ((D is F) or (D.order_proxy is F))



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           if an MRT doesn't use primary_intf
               indicate alternate is not node-protecting
               return that MRT color
           else // parallel links are cut-edge
               return AVOID_LINK_ON_BLUE

       if (D_lower and D_higher and F.lower and F.higher)
           if F.topo_order < D_topo_order
               return USE_RED
           else
               return USE_BLUE

       if (D_lower and D_higher)
           if F.higher
               return USE_RED
           else
               return USE_BLUE

       if (F.lower and F.higher)
           if D_lower
               return USE_RED
           else if D_higher
               return USE_BLUE
           else
               if primary_intf.OUTGOING and primary_intf.INCOMING
                   return AVOID_LINK_ON_BLUE
               if primary_intf.OUTGOING is true
                   return USE_BLUE
               if primary_intf.INCOMING is true
                   return USE_RED

       if D_higher
           if F.higher
               if F.topo_order < D_topo_order
                   return USE_RED
               else
                   return USE_BLUE
           else if F.lower
               return USE_BLUE
           else
               // F and S are neighbors so either F << S or F >> S
       else if D_lower
           if F.higher
               return USE_RED
           else if F.lower
               if F.topo_order < D_topo_order
                   return USE_RED
               else



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                   return USE_BLUE
               else
                   // F and S are neighbors so either F << S or F >> S
       else // D and S not ordered
           if F.lower
               return USE_RED
           else if F.higher
               return USE_BLUE
           else
               // F and S are neighbors so either F << S or F >> S


   Select_Alternates(S, D, F, primary_intf)
      if D.order_proxy is not D
         D_lower = D.order_proxy.lower
         D_higher = D.order_proxy.higher
         D_topo_order = D.order_proxy.topo_order
      else
         D_lower = D.lower
         D_higher = D.higher
         D_topo_order = D.topo_order
      return Select_Alternates_Internal(S, D, F, primary_intf,
                                       D_lower, D_higher, D_topo_order)

                                 Figure 23

   If either D>>S>>F or D<<S<<F holds true, the situation is simple: in
   the first case we should choose the increasing Blue next-hop, in the
   second case, the decreasing Red next-hop is the right choice.

   However, when both D and F are greater than S the situation is not so
   simple, there can be three possibilities: (i) F>>D (ii) F<<D or (iii)
   F and D are not ordered.  In the first case, we should choose the
   path towards D along the Blue tree.  In contrast, in case (ii) the
   Red path towards the root and then to D would be the solution.
   Finally, in case (iii) both paths would be acceptable.  However,
   observe that if e.g.  F.topo_order>D.topo_order, either case (i) or
   case (iii) holds true, which means that selecting the Blue next-hop
   is safe.  Similarly, if F.topo_order<D.topo_order, we should select
   the Red next-hop.  The situation is almost the same if both F and D
   are less than S.










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   Recall that we have added each link to the GADAG in some direction,
   so it is impossible that S and F are not ordered.  But it is possible
   that S and D are not ordered, so we need to deal with this case as
   well.  If F<<S, we can use the Red next-hop, because that path is
   first increasing until a node definitely greater than D is reached,
   than decreasing; this path must avoid using F. Similarly, if F>>S, we
   should use the Blue next-hop.

   Additionally, the cases where either F or D is ordered both higher
   and lower must be considered; this can happen when one is a block-
   root or its order_proxy is.  If D is both higher and lower than S,
   then the MRT to use is the one that avoids F so if F is higher, then
   the MRT-Red should be used and if F is lower, then the MRT-Blue
   should be used; F and S must be ordered because they are neighbors.
   If F is both higher and lower, then if D is lower, using the MRT-Red
   to decrease reaches D and if D is higher, using the Blue MRT to
   increase reaches D; if D is unordered compared to S, then the
   situation is a bit more complicated.

   In the case where F<<S<<F and D and S are unordered, the direction of
   the link in the GADAG between S and F should be examined.  If the
   link is directed S -> F, then use the MRT-Blue (decrease to avoid
   that link and then increase).  If the link is directed S <- F, then
   use the MRT-Red (increase to avoid that link and then decrease).  If
   the link is S <--> F, then the link must be a cut-link and there is
   no node-protecting alternate.  If there are multiple links between S
   and F, then they can protect against each other; of course, in this
   situation, they are probably already ECMP.

   Finally, there is the case where D is also F. In this case, only link
   protection is possible.  The MRT that doesn't use the indicated
   primary next-hop is used.  If both MRTs use the primary next-hop,
   then the primary next-hop must be a cut-edge so either MRT could be
   used but the set of MRT next-hops must be pruned to avoid that
   primary next-hop.  To indicate this case, Select_Alternates returns
   AVOID_LINK_ON_BLUE.

   As an example, consider the ADAG depicted in Figure 24 and first
   suppose that G is the source, D is the destination and H is the
   failed next-hop.  Since D>>G, we need to compare H.topo_order and
   D.topo_order.  Since D.topo_order>H.topo_order, D must be not smaller
   than H, so we should select the decreasing path towards the root.
   If, however, the destination were instead J, we must find that
   H.topo_order>J.topo_order, so we must choose the increasing Blue
   next-hop to J, which is I.  In the case, when instead the destination
   is C, we find that we need to first decrease to avoid using H, so the
   Blue, first decreasing then increasing, path is selected.




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                            [E]<-[D]<-[H]<-[J]
                             |    ^    ^    ^
                             V    |    |    |
                            [R]  [C]  [G]->[I]
                             |    ^    ^    ^
                             V    |    |    |
                            [A]->[B]->[F]---|

                                  (a)
                            a 2-connected graph

                                 Figure 24

4.8.  Finding FRR Next-Hops for Proxy-Nodes

   As discussed in Section 10.2 of
   [I-D.ietf-rtgwg-mrt-frr-architecture], it is necessary to find MRT-
   Blue and MRT-Red next-hops and MRT-FRR alternates for a named proxy-
   nodes.  An example case is for a router that is not part of that
   local MRT Island, when there is only partial MRT support in the
   domain.

   A first incorrect and naive approach to handling proxy-nodes, which
   cannot be transited, is to simply add these proxy-nodes to the graph
   of the network and connect it to the routers through which the new
   proxy-node can be reached.  Unfortunately, this can introduce some
   new ordering between the border routers connected to the new node
   which could result in routing MRT paths through the proxy-node.
   Thus, this naive approach would need to recompute GADAGs and redo
   SPTs for each proxy-node.

   Instead of adding the proxy-node to the original network graph, each
   individual proxy-node can be individually added to the GADAG.  The
   proxy-node is connected to at most two nodes in the GADAG.
   Section 10.2 of [I-D.ietf-rtgwg-mrt-frr-architecture] defines how the
   proxy-node attachments MUST be determined.  The degenerate case where
   the proxy-node is attached to only one node in the GADAG is trivial
   as all needed information can be derived from that attachment node;
   if there are different interfaces, then some can be assigned to MRT-
   Red and others to MRT_Blue.

   Now, consider the proxy-node that is attached to exactly two nodes in
   the GADAG.  Let the order_proxies of these nodes be A and B. Let the
   current node, where next-hop is just being calculated, be S.  If one
   of these two nodes A and B is the local root of S, let A=S.local_root
   and the other one be B. Otherwise, let A.topo_order < B.topo_order.





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   A valid GADAG was constructed.  Instead doing an increasing-SPF and a
   decreasing-SPF to find ordering for the proxy-nodes, the following
   simple rules, providing the same result, can be used independently
   for each different proxy-node.  For the following rules, let
   X=A.local_root, and if A is the local root, let that be strictly
   lower than any other node.  Always take the first rule that matches.


   Rule   Condition     Blue NH      Red NH        Notes
    1       S=X         Blue to A    Red to B
    2       S<<A        Blue to A    Red to R
    3       S>>B        Blue to R    Red to B
    4       A<<S<<B     Red to A     Blue to B
    5       A<<S        Red to A     Blue to R     S not ordered w/ B
    6       S<<B        Red to R     Blue to B     S not ordered w/ A
    7     Otherwise     Red to R     Blue to R     S not ordered w/ A+B


   These rules are realized in the following pseudocode where P is the
   proxy-node, X and Y are the nodes that P is attached to, and S is the
   computing router:

       Select_Proxy_Node_NHs(P, S, X, Y)
           if (X.order_proxy.topo_order < Y.order_proxy.topo_order)
               //This fits even if X.order_proxy=S.local_root
               A=X.order_proxy
               B=Y.order_proxy
           else
               A=Y.order_proxy
               B=X.order_proxy

           if (S==A.local_root)
               P.blue_next_hops = A.blue_next_hops
               P.red_next_hops  = B.red_next_hops
               return
           if (A.higher)
               P.blue_next_hops = A.blue_next_hops
               P.red_next_hops  = R.red_next_hops
               return
           if (B.lower)
               P.blue_next_hops = R.blue_next_hops
               P.red_next_hops  = B.red_next_hops
               return
           if (A.lower && B.higher)
               P.blue_next_hops = A.red_next_hops
               P.red_next_hops  = B.blue_next_hops
               return
           if (A.lower)



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               P.blue_next_hops = R.red_next_hops
               P.red_next_hops  = B.blue_next_hops
               return
           if (B.higher)
               P.blue_next_hops = A.red_next_hops
               P.red_next_hops  = R.blue_next_hops
               return
           P.blue_next_hops = R.red_next_hops
           P.red_next_hops  = R.blue_next_hops
           return



   After finding the the red and the blue next-hops, it is necessary to
   know which one of these to use in the case of failure.  This can be
   done by Select_Alternates_Inner().  In order to use
   Select_Alternates_Internal(), we need to know if P is greater, less
   or unordered with S, and P.topo_order.  P.lower = B.lower, P.higher =
   A.higher, and any value is OK for P.topo_order, until
   A.topo_order<=P.topo_order<=B.topo_order and P.topo_order is not
   equal to the topo_order of the failed node.  So for simplicity let
   P.topo_order=A.topo_order when the next-hop is not A, and
   P.topo_order=B.topo_order otherwise.  This gives the following
   pseudo-code:


     Select_Alternates_Proxy_Node(S, P, F, primary_intf)
        if (F is not P.neighbor_A)
           return Select_Alternates_Internal(S, P, F, primary_intf,
                                             P.neighbor_B.lower,
                                             P.neighbor_A.higher,
                                             P.neighbor_A.topo_order)
        else
           return Select_Alternates_Internal(S, P, F, primary_intf,
                                             P.neighbor_B.lower,
                                             P.neighbor_A.higher,
                                             P.neighbor_B.topo_order)

                                 Figure 25

5.  MRT Lowpoint Algorithm: Complete Specification










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   This specification defines the MRT Lowpoint Algorithm, which include
   the construction of a common GADAG and the computation of MRT-Red and
   MRT-Blue next-hops to each node in the graph.  An implementation MAY
   select any subset of next-hops for MRT-Red and MRT-Blue that respect
   the available nodes that are described in Section 4.6 for each of the
   MRT-Red and MRT-Blue and the selected next-hops are further along in
   the interval of allowed nodes towards the destination.

   For example, the MRT-Blue next-hops used when the destination Y >> S,
   the computing router, MUST be one or more nodes, T, whose topo_order
   is in the interval [X.topo_order, Y.topo_order] and where Y >> T or Y
   is T.  Similarly, the MRT-Red next-hops MUST be have a topo_order in
   the interval [R-small.topo_order, X.topo_order] or [Y.topo_order,
   R-big.topo_order].

   Implementations SHOULD implement the Select_Alternates() function to
   pick an MRT-FRR alternate.

   In a future version, this section will include pseudo-code describing
   the full code path through the pseudo-code given earlier in the
   draft.

6.  Algorithm Alternatives and Evaluation

   This specification defines the MRT Lowpoint Algorithm, which is one
   option among several possible MRT algorithms.  Other alternatives are
   described in the appendices.

   In addition, it is possible to calculate Destination-Rooted GADAG,
   where for each destination, a GADAG rooted at that destination is
   computed.  Then a router can compute the blue MRT and red MRT next-
   hops to that destination.  Building GADAGs per destination is
   computationally more expensive, but may give somewhat shorter
   alternate paths.  It may be useful for live-live multicast along
   MRTs.

6.1.  Algorithm Evaluation

   This section compares MRT and remote LFA for IP Fast Reroute in 19
   service provider network topologies, focusing on coverage and
   alternate path length.  Figure 26 shows the node-protecting coverage
   provided by local LFA (LLFA), remote LFA (RLFA), and MRT against
   different failure scenarios in these topologies.  The coverage values
   are calculated as the percentage of source-destination pairs
   protected by the given IPFRR method relative to those protectable by
   optimal routing, against the same failure modes.  More details on
   alternate selection policies used for this analysis are described
   later in this section.



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               +------------+-----------------------------+
               |  Topology  |    percentage of failure    |
               |            |    scenarios covered by     |
               |            |        IPFRR method         |
               |            |-----------------------------+
               |            | NP_LLFA | NP_RLFA |   MRT   |
               +------------+---------+---------+---------+
               |    T201    |   37    |   90    |   100   |
               |    T202    |   73    |   83    |   100   |
               |    T203    |   51    |   80    |   100   |
               |    T204    |   55    |   81    |   100   |
               |    T205    |   92    |   93    |   100   |
               |    T206    |   71    |   74    |   100   |
               |    T207    |   57    |   74    |   100   |
               |    T208    |   66    |   81    |   100   |
               |    T209    |   79    |   79    |   100   |
               |    T210    |   95    |   98    |   100   |
               |    T211    |   68    |   71    |   100   |
               |    T212    |   59    |   63    |   100   |
               |    T213    |   84    |   84    |   100   |
               |    T214    |   68    |   78    |   100   |
               |    T215    |   84    |   88    |   100   |
               |    T216    |   43    |   59    |   100   |
               |    T217    |   78    |   88    |   100   |
               |    T218    |   72    |   75    |   100   |
               |    T219    |   78    |   84    |   100   |
               +------------+---------+---------+---------+

                                 Figure 26

   For the topologies analyzed here, LLFA is able to provide node-
   protecting coverage ranging from 37% to 95% of the source-destination
   pairs, as seen in the column labeled NP_LLFA.  The use of RLFA in
   addition to LLFA is generally able to increase the node-protecting
   coverage.  The percentage of node-protecting coverage with RLFA is
   provided in the column labeled NP_RLFA, ranges from 59% to 98% for
   these topologies.  The node-protecting coverage provided by MRT is
   100% since MRT is able to provide protection for any source-
   destination pair for which a path still exists after the failure.

   We would also like to measure the quality of the alternate paths
   produced by these different IPFRR methods.  An obvious approach is to
   take an average of the alternate path costs over all source-
   destination pairs and failure modes.  However, this presents a
   problem, which we will illustrate by presenting an example of results
   for one topology using this approach ( Figure 27).  In this table,
   the average relative path length is the alternate path length for the
   IPFRR method divided by the optimal alternate path length, averaged



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   over all source-destination pairs and failure modes.  The first three
   columns of data in the table give the path length calculated from the
   sum of IGP metrics of the links in the path.  The results for
   topology T208 show that the metric-based path lengths for NP_LLFA and
   NP_RLFA alternates are on average 78 and 66 times longer than the
   path lengths for optimal alternates.  The metric-based path lengths
   for MRT alternates are on average 14 times longer than for optimal
   alternates.

        +--------+------------------------------------------------+
        |        |     average relative alternate path length     |
        |        |-----------------------+------------------------+
        |Topology|      IGP metric       |       hopcount         |
        |        |-----------------------+------------------------+
        |        |NP_LLFA |NP_RLFA | MRT |NP_LLFA |NP_RLFA | MRT  |
        +--------+--------+--------+-----+--------+--------+------+
        |  T208  |  78.2  |   66.0 | 13.6|  0.99  |  1.01  | 1.32 |
        +--------+--------+--------+-----+--------+--------+------+

                                 Figure 27

   The network topology represented by T208 uses values of 10, 100, and
   1000 as IGP costs, so small deviations from the optimal alternate
   path can result in large differences in relative path length.  LLFA,
   RLFA, and MRT all allow for at least one hop in the alterate path to
   be chosen independent of the cost of the link.  This can easily
   result in an alternate using a link with cost 1000, which introduces
   noise into the path length measurement.  In the case of T208, the
   adverse effects of using metric-based path lengths is obvious.
   However, we have observed that the metric-based path length
   introduces noise into alternate path length measurements in several
   other topologies as well.  For this reason, we have opted to measure
   the alternate path length using hopcount.  While IGP metrics may be
   adjusted by the network operator for a number of reasons (e.g.
   traffic engineering), the hopcount is a fairly stable measurement of
   path length.  As shown in the last three columns of Figure 27, the
   hopcount-based alternate path lengths for topology T208 are fairly
   well-behaved.

   Figure 28, Figure 29, Figure 30, and Figure 31 present the hopcount-
   based path length results for the 19 topologies examined.  The
   topologies in the four tables are grouped based on the size of the
   topologies, as measured by the number of nodes, with Figure 28 having
   the smallest topologies and Figure 31 having the largest topologies.
   Instead of trying to represent the path lengths of a large set of
   alternates with a single number, we have chosen to present a
   histogram of the path lengths for each IPFRR method and alternate
   selection policy studied.  The first eight colums of data represent



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   the percentage of failure scenarios protected by an alternate N hops
   longer than the primary path, with the first column representing an
   alternate 0 or 1 hops longer than the primary path, all the way up
   through the eighth column respresenting an alternate 14 or 15 hops
   longer than the primary path.  The last column in the table gives the
   percentage of failure scenarios for which there is no alternate less
   than 16 hops longer than the primary path.  In the case of LLFA and
   RLFA, this category includes failure scenarios for which no alternate
   was found.

   For each topology, the first row (labeled OPTIMAL) is the
   distribution of the number of hops in excess of the primary path
   hopcount for optimally routed alternates.  (The optimal routing was
   done with respect to IGP metrics, as opposed to hopcount.)  The
   second row(labeled NP_LLFA) is the distribution of the extra hops for
   node-protecting LLFA.  The third row (labeled NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA)
   is the hopcount distribution when one adds node-protecting RLFA to
   increase the coverage.  The alternate selection policy used here
   first tries to find a node-protecting LLFA.  If that does not exist,
   then it tries to find an RLFA, and checks if it is node-protecting.
   Comparing the hopcount distribution for RLFA and LLFA across these
   topologies, one can see how the coverage is increased at the expense
   of using longer alternates.  It is also worth noting that while
   superficially LLFA and RLFA appear to have better hopcount
   distributions than OPTIMAL, the presence of entries in the last
   column (no alternate < 16) mainly represent failure scenarios that
   are not protected, for which the hopcount is effectively infinite.

   The fourth and fifth rows of each topology show the hopcount
   distributions for two alternate selection policies using MRT
   alternates.  The policy represented by the label
   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT will first use a node-protecting LLFA.  If
   a node-protecting LLFA does not exist, then it will use an MRT
   alternate.  The policy represented by the label MRT_LOWPOINT instead
   will use the MRT alternate even if a node-protecting LLFA exists.
   One can see from the data that combining node-protecting LLFA with
   MRT results in a significant shortening of the alternate hopcount
   distribution.













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   +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
   |                              |   percentage of failure scenarios  |
   |        Topology name         |  protected by an alternate N hops  |
   |             and              |   longer than the primary path     |
   |     alternate selection      +------------------------------------+
   |       policy evaluated       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | no |
   |                              |   |   |   |   |   |10 |12 |14 | alt|
   |                              |0-1|2-3|4-5|6-7|8-9|-11|-13|-15| <16|
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T201(avg primary hops=3.5)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 37| 37| 20|  3|  3|   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 37|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |  63|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 37| 34| 19|   |   |   |   |   |  10|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 37| 33| 21|  6|  3|   |   |   |    |
   |         MRT_LOWPOINT         | 33| 36| 23|  6|  3|   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T202(avg primary hops=4.8)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 90|  9|   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 71|  2|   |   |   |   |   |   |  27|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 78|  5|   |   |   |   |   |   |  17|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 80| 12|  5|  2|  1|   |   |   |    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 48| 29| 13|  7|  2|  1|   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T203(avg primary hops=4.1)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 36| 37| 21|  4|  2|   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 34| 15|  3|   |   |   |   |   |  49|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 35| 19| 22|  4|   |   |   |   |  20|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 36| 35| 22|  5|  2|   |   |   |    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 31| 35| 26|  7|  2|   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T204(avg primary hops=3.7)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 76| 20|  3|  1|   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 54|  1|   |   |   |   |   |   |  45|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 67| 10|  4|   |   |   |   |   |  19|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 70| 18|  8|  3|  1|   |   |   |    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 58| 27| 11|  3|  1|   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T205(avg primary hops=3.4)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 92|  8|   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 89|  3|   |   |   |   |   |   |   8|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 90|  4|   |   |   |   |   |   |   7|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 91|  9|   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 62| 33|  5|  1|   |   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+

                                 Figure 28





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   +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
   |                              |   percentage of failure scenarios  |
   |        Topology name         |  protected by an alternate N hops  |
   |             and              |   longer than the primary path     |
   |     alternate selection      +------------------------------------+
   |       policy evaluated       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | no |
   |                              |   |   |   |   |   |10 |12 |14 | alt|
   |                              |0-1|2-3|4-5|6-7|8-9|-11|-13|-15| <16|
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T206(avg primary hops=3.7)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 63| 30|  7|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 60|  9|  1|   |   |   |   |   |  29|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 60| 13|  1|   |   |   |   |   |  26|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 64| 29|  7|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |         MRT_LOWPOINT         | 55| 32| 13|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T207(avg primary hops=3.9)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 71| 24|  5|  1|   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 55|  2|   |   |   |   |   |   |  43|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 63| 10|   |   |   |   |   |   |  26|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 70| 20|  7|  2|  1|   |   |   |    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 57| 29| 11|  3|  1|   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T208(avg primary hops=4.6)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 58| 28| 12|  2|  1|   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 53| 11|  3|   |   |   |   |   |  34|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 56| 17|  7|  1|   |   |   |   |  19|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 58| 19| 10|  7|  3|  1|   |   |    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 34| 24| 21| 13|  6|  2|  1|   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T209(avg primary hops=3.6)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 85| 14|  1|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 79|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |  21|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 79|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |  21|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 82| 15|  2|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 63| 29|  8|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T210(avg primary hops=2.5)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 95|  4|  1|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 94|  1|   |   |   |   |   |   |   5|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 94|  3|  1|   |   |   |   |   |   2|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 95|  4|  1|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 91|  6|  2|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+

                                 Figure 29





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   +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
   |                              |   percentage of failure scenarios  |
   |        Topology name         |  protected by an alternate N hops  |
   |             and              |   longer than the primary path     |
   |     alternate selection      +------------------------------------+
   |       policy evaluated       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | no |
   |                              |   |   |   |   |   |10 |12 |14 | alt|
   |                              |0-1|2-3|4-5|6-7|8-9|-11|-13|-15| <16|
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T211(avg primary hops=3.3)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 88| 11|   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 66|  1|   |   |   |   |   |   |  32|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 68|  3|   |   |   |   |   |   |  29|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 88| 12|   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |         MRT_LOWPOINT         | 85| 15|  1|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T212(avg primary hops=3.5)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 76| 23|  1|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 59|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |  41|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 61|  1|  1|   |   |   |   |   |  37|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 75| 24|  1|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 66| 31|  3|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T213(avg primary hops=4.3)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 91|  9|   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 84|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |  16|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 84|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |  16|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 89| 10|  1|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 75| 24|  1|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T214(avg primary hops=5.8)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 71| 22|  5|  2|   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 58|  8|  1|  1|   |   |   |   |  32|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 61| 13|  3|  1|   |   |   |   |  22|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 66| 14|  7|  5|  3|  2|  1|  1|   1|
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 30| 20| 18| 12|  8|  4|  3|  2|   3|
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T215(avg primary hops=4.8)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 73| 27|   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 73| 11|   |   |   |   |   |   |  16|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 73| 13|  2|   |   |   |   |   |  12|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 74| 19|  3|  2|  1|  1|  1|   |    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 32| 31| 16| 12|  4|  3|  1|   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+

                                 Figure 30





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   +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
   |                              |   percentage of failure scenarios  |
   |        Topology name         |  protected by an alternate N hops  |
   |             and              |   longer than the primary path     |
   |     alternate selection      +------------------------------------+
   |       policy evaluated       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | no |
   |                              |   |   |   |   |   |10 |12 |14 | alt|
   |                              |0-1|2-3|4-5|6-7|8-9|-11|-13|-15| <16|
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T216(avg primary hops=5.2)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 60| 32|  7|  1|   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 39|  4|   |   |   |   |   |   |  57|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 46| 12|  2|   |   |   |   |   |  41|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 48| 20| 12|  7|  5|  4|  2|  1|   1|
   |         MRT_LOWPOINT         | 28| 25| 18| 11|  7|  6|  3|  2|   1|
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T217(avg primary hops=8.0)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 81| 13|  5|  1|   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 74|  3|  1|   |   |   |   |   |  22|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 76|  8|  3|  1|   |   |   |   |  12|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 77|  7|  5|  4|  3|  2|  1|  1|    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 25| 18| 18| 16| 12|  6|  3|  1|    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T218(avg primary hops=5.5)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 85| 14|  1|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 68|  3|   |   |   |   |   |   |  28|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 71|  4|   |   |   |   |   |   |  25|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 77| 12|  7|  4|  1|   |   |   |    |
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 37| 29| 21| 10|  3|  1|   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T219(avg primary hops=7.7)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |            OPTIMAL           | 77| 15|  5|  1|  1|   |   |   |    |
   |            NP_LLFA           | 72|  5|   |   |   |   |   |   |  22|
   |     NP_LLFA_THEN_NP_RLFA     | 73|  8|  2|   |   |   |   |   |  16|
   |   NP_LLFA_THEN_MRT_LOWPOINT  | 74|  8|  3|  3|  2|  2|  2|  2|   4|
   |       MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY      | 19| 14| 15| 12| 10|  8|  7|  6|  10|
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+

                                 Figure 31

   In the preceding analysis, the following procedure for selecting an
   RLFA was used.  Nodes were ordered with respect to distance from the
   source and checked for membership in Q and P-space.  The first node
   to satisfy this condition was selected as the RLFA.  More
   sophisticated methods to select node-protecting RLFAs is an area of
   active research.





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   The analysis presented above uses the MRT Lowpoint Algorithm defined
   in this specification with a common GADAG root.  The particular
   choice of a common GADAG root is expected to affect the quality of
   the MRT alternate paths, with a more central common GADAG root
   resulting in shorter MRT alternate path lengths.  For the analysis
   above, the GADAG root was chosen for each topology by calculating
   node centrality as the sum of costs of all shortest paths to and from
   a given node.  The node with the lowest sum was chosen as the common
   GADAG root.  In actual deployments, the common GADAG root would be
   chosen based on the GADAG Root Selection Priority advertised by each
   router, the values of which would be determined off-line.

   In order to measure how sensitive the MRT alternate path lengths are
   to the choice of common GADAG root, we performed the same analysis
   using different choices of GADAG root.  All of the nodes in the
   network were ordered with respect to the node centrality as computed
   above.  Nodes were chosen at the 0th, 25th, and 50th percentile with
   respect to the centrality ordering, with 0th percentile being the
   most central node.  The distribution of alternate path lengths for
   those three choices of GADAG root are shown in Figure 32 for a subset
   of the 19 topologies (chosen arbitrarily).  The third row for each
   topology (labeled MRT_LOWPOINT ( 0 percentile) ) reproduces the
   results presented above for MRT_LOWPOINT_ONLY.  The fourth and fifth
   rows show the alternate path length distibution for the 25th and 50th
   percentile choice for GADAG root.  One can see some impact on the
   path length distribution with the less central choice of GADAG root
   resulting in longer path lenghths.

   We also looked at the impact of MRT algorithm variant on the
   alternate path lengths.  The first two rows for each topology present
   results of the same alternate path length distribution analysis for
   the SPF and Hybrid methods for computing the GADAG.  These two
   methods are described in Appendix A and Appendix B.  For three of the
   topologies in this subset (T201, T206, and T211), the use of SPF or
   Hybrid methods does not appear to provide a significant advantage
   over the Lowpoint method with respect to path length.  Instead, the
   choice of GADAG root appears to have more impact on the path length.
   However, for two of the topologies in this subset(T216 and T219) and
   for this particular choice of GAGAG root, the use of the SPF method
   results in noticeably shorter alternate path lengths than the use of
   the Lowpoint or Hybrid methods.  It remains to be determined if this
   effect applies generally across more topologies or is sensitive to
   choice of GADAG root.








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   +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
   |        Topology name         |   percentage of failure scenarios  |
   |                              |  protected by an alternate N hops  |
   |     MRT algorithm variant    |   longer than the primary path     |
   |                              +------------------------------------+
   |          (GADAG root         |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | no |
   |     centrality percentile)   |   |   |   |   |   |10 |12 |14 | alt|
   |                              |0-1|2-3|4-5|6-7|8-9|-11|-13|-15| <16|
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T201(avg primary hops=3.5)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |   MRT_HYBRID ( 0 percentile) | 33| 26| 23|  6|  3|   |   |   |    |
   |      MRT_SPF ( 0 percentile) | 33| 36| 23|  6|  3|   |   |   |    |
   | MRT_LOWPOINT ( 0 percentile) | 33| 36| 23|  6|  3|   |   |   |    |
   | MRT_LOWPOINT (25 percentile) | 27| 29| 23| 11| 10|   |   |   |    |
   | MRT_LOWPOINT (50 percentile) | 27| 29| 23| 11| 10|   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T206(avg primary hops=3.7)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |   MRT_HYBRID ( 0 percentile) | 50| 35| 13|  2|   |   |   |   |    |
   |      MRT_SPF ( 0 percentile) | 50| 35| 13|  2|   |   |   |   |    |
   | MRT_LOWPOINT ( 0 percentile) | 55| 32| 13|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   | MRT_LOWPOINT (25 percentile) | 47| 25| 22|  6|   |   |   |   |    |
   | MRT_LOWPOINT (50 percentile) | 38| 38| 14| 11|   |   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T211(avg primary hops=3.3)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |   MRT_HYBRID ( 0 percentile) | 86| 14|   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |      MRT_SPF ( 0 percentile) | 86| 14|   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   | MRT_LOWPOINT ( 0 percentile) | 85| 15|  1|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   | MRT_LOWPOINT (25 percentile) | 70| 25|  5|  1|   |   |   |   |    |
   | MRT_LOWPOINT (50 percentile) | 80| 18|  2|   |   |   |   |   |    |
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T216(avg primary hops=5.2)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |   MRT_HYBRID ( 0 percentile) | 23| 22| 18| 13| 10|  7|  4|  2|   2|
   |      MRT_SPF ( 0 percentile) | 35| 32| 19|  9|  3|  1|   |   |    |
   | MRT_LOWPOINT ( 0 percentile) | 28| 25| 18| 11|  7|  6|  3|  2|   1|
   | MRT_LOWPOINT (25 percentile) | 24| 20| 19| 16| 10|  6|  3|  1|    |
   | MRT_LOWPOINT (50 percentile) | 19| 14| 13| 10|  8|  6|  5|  5|  10|
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+
   |  T219(avg primary hops=7.7)  |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |    |
   |   MRT_HYBRID ( 0 percentile) | 20| 16| 13| 10|  7|  5|  5|  5|   3|
   |      MRT_SPF ( 0 percentile) | 31| 23| 19| 12|  7|  4|  2|  1|    |
   | MRT_LOWPOINT ( 0 percentile) | 19| 14| 15| 12| 10|  8|  7|  6|  10|
   | MRT_LOWPOINT (25 percentile) | 19| 14| 15| 13| 12| 10|  6|  5|   7|
   | MRT_LOWPOINT (50 percentile) | 19| 14| 14| 12| 11|  8|  6|  6|  10|
   +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+


                                 Figure 32




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7.  Algorithm Work to Be Done

   Broadcast Interfaces:   The algorithm assumes that broadcast
      interfaces are already represented as pseudo-nodes in the network
      graph.  Given maximal redundancy, one of the MRT will try to avoid
      both the pseudo-node and the next hop.  The exact rules need to be
      fully specified.

8.  IANA Considerations

   This doument includes no request to IANA.

9.  Security Considerations

   This architecture is not currently believed to introduce new security
   concerns.

10.  References

10.1.  Normative References

   [I-D.ietf-rtgwg-mrt-frr-architecture]
              Atlas, A., Kebler, R., Envedi, G., Csaszar, A., Tantsura,
              J., Konstantynowicz, M., and R. White, "An Architecture
              for IP/LDP Fast-Reroute Using Maximally Redundant Trees",
              draft-ietf-rtgwg-mrt-frr-architecture-03 (work in
              progress), July 2013.

10.2.  Informative References

   [EnyediThesis]
              Enyedi, G., "Novel Algorithms for IP Fast Reroute",
              Department of Telecommunications and Media Informatics,
              Budapest University of Technology and Economics Ph.D.
              Thesis, February 2011, <http://www.omikk.bme.hu/
              collections/phd/Villamosmernoki_es_Informatikai_Kar/2011/
              Enyedi_Gabor/ertekezes.pdf>.

   [I-D.atlas-ospf-mrt]
              Atlas, A., Hegde, S., Chris, C., and J. Tantsura, "OSPF
              Extensions to Support Maximally Redundant Trees", draft-
              atlas-ospf-mrt-00 (work in progress), July 2013.

   [I-D.ietf-rtgwg-ipfrr-notvia-addresses]
              Bryant, S., Previdi, S., and M. Shand, "A Framework for IP
              and MPLS Fast Reroute Using Not-via Addresses", draft-
              ietf-rtgwg-ipfrr-notvia-addresses-11 (work in progress),
              May 2013.



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   [I-D.ietf-rtgwg-lfa-manageability]
              Litkowski, S., Decraene, B., Filsfils, C., and K. Raza,
              "Operational management of Loop Free Alternates", draft-
              ietf-rtgwg-lfa-manageability-00 (work in progress), May
              2013.

   [I-D.ietf-rtgwg-remote-lfa]
              Bryant, S., Filsfils, C., Previdi, S., Shand, M., and S.
              Ning, "Remote LFA FRR", draft-ietf-rtgwg-remote-lfa-02
              (work in progress), May 2013.

   [Kahn_1962_topo_sort]
              Kahn, A., "Topological sorting of large networks",
              Communications of the ACM, Volume 5, Issue 11 , Nov 1962,
              <http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=368996.369025>.

   [LFARevisited]
              Retvari, G., Tapolcai, J., Enyedi, G., and A. Csaszar, "IP
              Fast ReRoute: Loop Free Alternates Revisited", Proceedings
              of IEEE INFOCOM , 2011, <http://opti.tmit.bme.hu/~tapolcai
              /papers/retvari2011lfa_infocom.pdf>.

   [LightweightNotVia]
              Enyedi, G., Retvari, G., Szilagyi, P., and A. Csaszar, "IP
              Fast ReRoute: Lightweight Not-Via without Additional
              Addresses", Proceedings of IEEE INFOCOM , 2009,
              <http://mycite.omikk.bme.hu/doc/71691.pdf>.

   [MRTLinear]
              Enyedi, G., Retvari, G., and A. Csaszar, "On Finding
              Maximally Redundant Trees in Strictly Linear Time", IEEE
              Symposium on Computers and Comunications (ISCC) , 2009,
              <http://opti.tmit.bme.hu/~enyedi/ipfrr/
              distMaxRedTree.pdf>.

   [RFC3137]  Retana, A., Nguyen, L., White, R., Zinin, A., and D.
              McPherson, "OSPF Stub Router Advertisement", RFC 3137,
              June 2001.

   [RFC5286]  Atlas, A. and A. Zinin, "Basic Specification for IP Fast
              Reroute: Loop-Free Alternates", RFC 5286, September 2008.

   [RFC5714]  Shand, M. and S. Bryant, "IP Fast Reroute Framework", RFC
              5714, January 2010.







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   [RFC6571]  Filsfils, C., Francois, P., Shand, M., Decraene, B.,
              Uttaro, J., Leymann, N., and M. Horneffer, "Loop-Free
              Alternate (LFA) Applicability in Service Provider (SP)
              Networks", RFC 6571, June 2012.

Appendix A.  Option 2: Computing GADAG using SPFs

   The basic idea in this option is to use slightly-modified SPF
   computations to find ears.  In every block, an SPF computation is
   first done to find a cycle from the local root and then SPF
   computations in that block find ears until there are no more
   interfaces to be explored.  The used result from the SPF computation
   is the path of interfaces indicated by following the previous hops
   from the mininized IN_GADAG node back to the SPF root.

   To do this, first all cut-vertices must be identified and local-roots
   assigned as specified in Figure 12.

   The slight modifications to the SPF are as follows.  The root of the
   block is referred to as the block-root; it is either the GADAG root
   or a cut-vertex.

   a.  The SPF is rooted at a neighbor x of an IN_GADAG node y.  All
       links between y and x are marked as TEMP_UNUSABLE.  They should
       not be used during the SPF computation.

   b.  If y is not the block-root, then it is marked TEMP_UNUSABLE.  It
       should not be used during the SPF computation.  This prevents
       ears from starting and ending at the same node and avoids cycles;
       the exception is because cycles to/from the block-root are
       acceptable and expected.

   c.  Do not explore links to nodes whose local-root is not the block-
       root.  This keeps the SPF confined to the particular block.

   d.  Terminate when the first IN_GADAG node z is minimized.

   e.  Respect the existing directions (e.g. INCOMING, OUTGOING,
       UNDIRECTED) already specified for each interface.


    Mod_SPF(spf_root, block_root)
       Initialize spf_heap to empty
       Initialize nodes' spf_metric to infinity
       spf_root.spf_metric = 0
       insert(spf_heap, spf_root)
       found_in_gadag = false
       while (spf_heap is not empty) and (found_in_gadag is false)



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           min_node = remove_lowest(spf_heap)
           if min_node.IN_GADAG is true
              found_in_gadag = true
           else
              foreach interface intf of min_node
                 if ((intf.OUTGOING or intf.UNDIRECTED) and
                     ((intf.remote_node.localroot is block_root) or
                      (intf.remote_node is block_root)) and
                     (intf.remote_node is not TEMP_UNUSABLE) and
                     (intf is not TEMP_UNUSABLE))
                    path_metric = min_node.spf_metric + intf.metric
                    if path_metric < intf.remote_node.spf_metric
                       intf.remote_node.spf_metric = path_metric
                       intf.remote_node.spf_prev_intf = intf
                       insert_or_update(spf_heap, intf.remote_node)
       return min_node



    SPF_for_Ear(cand_intf.local_node,cand_intf.remote_node, block_root,
                method)
       Mark all interfaces between cand_intf.remote_node
                  and cand_intf.local_node as TEMP_UNUSABLE
       if cand_intf.local_node is not block_root
          Mark cand_intf.local_node as TEMP_UNUSABLE
       Initialize ear_list to empty
       end_ear = Mod_SPF(spf_root, block_root)
       y = end_ear.spf_prev_hop
       while y.local_node is not spf_root
         add_to_list_start(ear_list, y)
         y.local_node.IN_GADAG = true
         y = y.local_node.spf_prev_intf
       if(method is not hybrid)
          Set_Ear_Direction(ear_list, cand_intf.local_node,
                            end_ear,block_root)
       Clear TEMP_UNUSABLE from all interfaces between
             cand_intf.remote_node and cand_intf.local_node
       Clear TEMP_UNUSABLE from cand_intf.local_node
    return end_ear


               Figure 33: Modified SPF for GADAG computation

   Assume that an ear is found by going from y to x and then running an
   SPF that terminates by minimizing z (e.g. y<->x...q<->z).  Now it is
   necessary to determine the direction of the ear; if y << z, then the
   path should be y->x...q->z but if y >> z, then the path should be
   y<-x...q<-z.  In Section 4.4, the same problem was handled by finding



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   all ears that started at a node before looking at ears starting at
   nodes higher in the partial order.  In this algorithm, using that
   approach could mean that new ears aren't added in order of their
   total cost since all ears connected to a node would need to be found
   before additional nodes could be found.

   The alternative is to track the order relationship of each node with
   respect to every other node.  This can be accomplished by maintaining
   two sets of nodes at each node.  The first set, Higher_Nodes,
   contains all nodes that are known to be ordered above the node.  The
   second set, Lower_Nodes, contains all nodes that are known to be
   ordered below the node.  This is the approach used in this algorithm.


      Set_Ear_Direction(ear_list, end_a, end_b, block_root)
        // Default of A_TO_B for the following cases:
        //  (a) end_a and end_b are the same (root)
        // or (b) end_a is in end_b's Lower Nodes
        // or (c) end_a and end_b were unordered with respect to each
        //        other
        direction = A_TO_B
        if (end_b is block_root) and (end_a is not end_b)
           direction = B_TO_A
        else if end_a is in end_b.Higher_Nodes
           direction = B_TO_A
        if direction is B_TO_A
           foreach interface i in ear_list
               i.UNDIRECTED = false
               i.INCOMING = true
               i.remote_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
               i.remote_intf.OUTGOING = true
        else
           foreach interface i in ear_list
               i.UNDIRECTED = false
               i.OUTGOING = true
               i.remote_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
               i.remote_intf.INCOMING = true
         if end_a is end_b
            return
         // Next, update all nodes' Lower_Nodes and Higher_Nodes
         if (end_a is in end_b.Higher_Nodes)
            foreach node x where x.localroot is block_root
                if end_a is in x.Lower_Nodes
                   foreach interface i in ear_list
                      add i.remote_node to x.Lower_Nodes
                if end_b is in x.Higher_Nodes
                   foreach interface i in ear_list
                      add i.local_node to x.Higher_Nodes



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          else
            foreach node x where x.localroot is block_root
                if end_b is in x.Lower_Nodes
                   foreach interface i in ear_list
                      add i.local_node to x.Lower_Nodes
                if end_a is in x.Higher_Nodes
                   foreach interface i in ear_list
                      add i.remote_node to x.Higher_Nodes

         Figure 34: Algorithm to assign links of an ear direction

   A goal of the algorithm is to find the shortest cycles and ears.  An
   ear is started by going to a neighbor x of an IN_GADAG node y.  The
   path from x to an IN_GADAG node is minimal, since it is computed via
   SPF.  Since a shortest path is made of shortest paths, to find the
   shortest ears requires reaching from the set of IN_GADAG nodes to the
   closest node that isn't IN_GADAG.  Therefore, an ordered tree is
   maintained of interfaces that could be explored from the IN_GADAG
   nodes.  The interfaces are ordered by their characteristics of
   metric, local loopback address, remote loopback address, and ifindex,
   as in the algorithm previously described in Figure 14.

   The algorithm ignores interfaces picked from the ordered tree that
   belong to the block root if the block in which the interface is
   present already has an ear that has been computed.  This is necessary
   since we allow at most one incoming interface to a block root in each
   block.  This requirement stems from the way next-hops are computed as
   will be seen in Section 4.6.  After any ear gets computed, we
   traverse the newly added nodes to the GADAG and insert interfaces
   whose far end is not yet on the GADAG to the ordered tree for later
   processing.

   Finally, cut-edges are a special case because there is no point in
   doing an SPF on a block of 2 nodes.  The algorithm identifies cut-
   edges simply as links where both ends of the link are cut-vertices.
   Cut-edges can simply be added to the GADAG with both OUTGOING and
   INCOMING specified on their interfaces.

      add_eligible_interfaces_of_node(ordered_intfs_tree,node)
         for each interface of node
            if intf.remote_node.IN_GADAG is false
          insert(intf,ordered_intfs_tree)

      check_if_block_has_ear(x,block_id)
         block_has_ear = false
            for all interfaces of x
               if (intf.remote_node.block_id == block_id) &&
              (intf.remote_node.IN_GADAG is true)



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                  block_has_ear = true
      return block_has_ear

      Construct_GADAG_via_SPF(topology, root)
        Compute_Localroot (root,root)
        Assign_Block_ID(root,0)
        root.IN_GADAG = true
           add_eligible_interfaces_of_node(ordered_intfs_tree,root)
        while ordered_intfs_tree is not empty
           cand_intf = remove_lowest(ordered_intfs_tree)
           if cand_intf.remote_node.IN_GADAG is false
              if L(cand_intf.remote_node) == D(cand_intf.remote_node)
                 // Special case for cut-edges
                 cand_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
                 cand_intf.remote_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
                 cand_intf.OUTGOING = true
                 cand_intf.INCOMING = true
                 cand_intf.remote_intf.OUTGOING = true
                 cand_intf.remote_intf.INCOMING = true
                 cand_intf.remote_node.IN_GADAG = true
             add_eligible_interfaces_of_node(
              ordered_intfs_tree,cand_intf.remote_node)
           else
             if (cand_intf.remote_node.local_root ==
                  cand_intf.local_node) &&
                  check_if_block_has_ear
                      (cand_intf.local_node,
                      cand_intf.remote_node.block_id))
                  /* Skip the interface since the block root
                  already has an incoming interface in the
                  block */
             else
              ear_end = SPF_for_Ear(cand_intf.local_node,
                      cand_intf.remote_node,
                      cand_intf.remote_node.localroot,
                      SPF method)
              y = ear_end.spf_prev_hop
              while y.local_node is not cand_intf.local_node
                          add_eligible_interfaces_of_node(
                          ordered_intfs_tree,
                          y.local_node)
                          y = y.local_node.spf_prev_intf


                   Figure 35: SPF-based GADAG algorithm

Appendix B.  Option 3: Computing GADAG using a hybrid method




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   In this option, the idea is to combine the salient features of the
   above two options.  To this end, we process nodes as they get added
   to the GADAG just like in the lowpoint inheritance by maintaining a
   stack of nodes.  This ensures that we do not need to maintain lower
   and higher sets at each node to ascertain ear directions since the
   ears will always be directed from the node being processed towards
   the end of the ear.  To compute the ear however, we resort to an SPF
   to have the possibility of better ears (path lentghs) thus giving
   more flexibility than the restricted use of lowpoint/dfs parents.

   Regarding ears involving a block root, unlike the SPF method which
   ignored interfaces of the block root after the first ear, in the
   hybrid method we would have to process all interfaces of the block
   root before moving on to other nodes in the block since the direction
   of an ear is pre-determined.  Thus, whenever the block already has an
   ear computed, and we are processing an interface of the block root,
   we mark the block root as unusable before the SPF run that computes
   the ear.  This ensures that the SPF terminates at some node other
   than the block-root.  This in turn guarantees that the block-root has
   only one incoming interface in each block, which is necessary for
   correctly computing the next-hops on the GADAG.

   As in the SPF gadag, bridge ears are handled as a special case.

   The entire algorithm is shown below in Figure 36

      find_spf_stack_ear(stack, x, y, xy_intf, block_root)
         if L(y) == D(y)
            // Special case for cut-edges
            xy_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
            xy_intf.remote_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
            xy_intf.OUTGOING = true
            xy_intf.INCOMING = true
            xy_intf.remote_intf.OUTGOING = true
            xy_intf.remote_intf.INCOMING = true
            xy_intf.remote_node.IN_GADAG = true
            push y onto stack
            return
         else
            if (y.local_root == x) &&
                 check_if_block_has_ear(x,y.block_id)
               //Avoid the block root during the SPF
               Mark x as TEMP_UNUSABLE
            end_ear = SPF_for_Ear(x,y,block_root,hybrid)
            If x was set as TEMP_UNUSABLE, clear it
            cur = end_ear
            while (cur != y)
               intf = cur.spf_prev_hop



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               prev = intf.local_node
               intf.UNDIRECTED = false
               intf.remote_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
               intf.OUTGOING = true
               intf.remote_intf.INCOMING = true
               push prev onto stack
           cur = prev
            xy_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
            xy_intf.remote_intf.UNDIRECTED = false
            xy_intf.OUTGOING = true
            xy_intf.remote_intf.INCOMING = true
            return

      Construct_GADAG_via_hybrid(topology,root)
         Compute_Localroot (root,root)
         Assign_Block_ID(root,0)
         root.IN_GADAG = true
         Initialize Stack to empty
         push root onto Stack
         while (Stack is not empty)
            x = pop(Stack)
            for each interface intf of x
               y = intf.remote_node
               if y.IN_GADAG is false
                  find_spf_stack_ear(stack, x, y, intf, y.block_root)

                     Figure 36: Hybrid GADAG algorithm

Authors' Addresses

   Gabor Sandor Enyedi (editor)
   Ericsson
   Konyves Kalman krt 11
   Budapest  1097
   Hungary

   Email: Gabor.Sandor.Enyedi@ericsson.com


   Andras Csaszar
   Ericsson
   Konyves Kalman krt 11
   Budapest  1097
   Hungary

   Email: Andras.Csaszar@ericsson.com





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   Alia Atlas (editor)
   Juniper Networks
   10 Technology Park Drive
   Westford, MA  01886
   USA

   Email: akatlas@juniper.net


   Chris Bowers
   Juniper Networks
   1194 N. Mathilda Ave.
   Sunnyvale, CA  94089
   USA

   Email: cbowers@juniper.net


   Abishek Gopalan
   University of Arizona
   1230 E Speedway Blvd.
   Tucson, AZ  85721
   USA

   Email: abishek@ece.arizona.edu


























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