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State-of-the-Art and Challenges for the Internet of Things Security
draft-irtf-t2trg-iot-seccons-13

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Document Type
This is an older version of an Internet-Draft that was ultimately published as RFC 8576.
Authors Oscar Garcia-Morchon , Sandeep Kumar , Mohit Sethi
Last updated 2018-04-08
Replaces draft-garcia-core-security
RFC stream Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
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draft-irtf-t2trg-iot-seccons-13
Network Working Group                                  O. Garcia-Morchon
Internet-Draft                                              Philips IP&S
Intended status: Informational                                  S. Kumar
Expires: October 10, 2018                               Philips Research
                                                                M. Sethi
                                                                Ericsson
                                                          April 08, 2018

  State-of-the-Art and Challenges for the Internet of Things Security
                    draft-irtf-t2trg-iot-seccons-13

Abstract

   The Internet of Things (IoT) concept refers to the usage of standard
   Internet protocols to allow for human-to-thing and thing-to-thing
   communication.  The security needs for IoT systems are well-
   recognized and many standardization steps to provide security have
   been taken, for example, the specification of Constrained Application
   Protocol (CoAP) secured with Datagram Transport Layer Security
   (DTLS).  However, security challenges still exist, not only because
   there are some use cases that lack a suitable solution, but also
   because many IoT devices and systems have been designed and deployed
   with very limited security capabilities.  In this document, we first
   discuss the various stages in the lifecycle of a thing.  Next, we
   document the security threats to a thing and the challenges that one
   might face to protect against these threats.  Lastly, we discuss the
   next steps needed to facilitate the deployment of secure IoT systems.
   This document can be used by implementors and authors of IoT
   specifications as a reference for details about security
   considerations while documenting their specific security challenges,
   threat models, and mitigations.

   This document is a product of the IRTF Thing-to-Thing Research Group
   (T2TRG).

Status of This Memo

   This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
   provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.

   Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
   Task Force (IETF).  Note that other groups may also distribute
   working documents as Internet-Drafts.  The list of current Internet-
   Drafts is at https://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.

   Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
   and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any

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   time.  It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
   material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."

   This Internet-Draft will expire on October 10, 2018.

Copyright Notice

   Copyright (c) 2018 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
   document authors.  All rights reserved.

   This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
   Provisions Relating to IETF Documents
   (https://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of
   publication of this document.  Please review these documents
   carefully, as they describe your rights and restrictions with respect
   to this document.  Code Components extracted from this document must
   include Simplified BSD License text as described in Section 4.e of
   the Trust Legal Provisions and are provided without warranty as
   described in the Simplified BSD License.

Table of Contents

   1.  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
   2.  The Thing Lifecycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
   3.  Security Threats and Managing Risk  . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
   4.  State-of-the-Art  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
     4.1.  IP-based IoT Protocols and Standards  . . . . . . . . . .  11
     4.2.  Existing IP-based Security Protocols and Solutions  . . .  14
     4.3.  IoT Security Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16
   5.  Challenges for a Secure IoT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  18
     5.1.  Constraints and Heterogeneous Communication . . . . . . .  19
       5.1.1.  Resource Constraints  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19
       5.1.2.  Denial-of-Service Resistance  . . . . . . . . . . . .  20
       5.1.3.  End-to-end security, protocol translation, and the
               role of middleboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21
       5.1.4.  New network architectures and paradigm  . . . . . . .  22
     5.2.  Bootstrapping of a Security Domain  . . . . . . . . . . .  23
     5.3.  Operational Challenges  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23
       5.3.1.  Group Membership and Security . . . . . . . . . . . .  23
       5.3.2.  Mobility and IP Network Dynamics  . . . . . . . . . .  25
     5.4.  Secure software update and cryptographic agility  . . . .  25
     5.5.  End-of-Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28
     5.6.  Verifying device behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28
     5.7.  Testing: bug hunting and vulnerabilities  . . . . . . . .  29
     5.8.  Quantum-resistance  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  29
     5.9.  Privacy protection  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  30
     5.10. Reverse engineering considerations  . . . . . . . . . . .  32
     5.11. Trustworthy IoT Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  33

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   6.  Conclusions and Next Steps  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  33
   7.  Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  34
   8.  IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  34
   9.  Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  34
   10. Informative References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  34
   Authors' Addresses  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  45

1.  Introduction

   The Internet of Things (IoT) denotes the interconnection of highly
   heterogeneous networked entities and networks that follow a number of
   different communication patterns such as: human-to-human (H2H),
   human-to-thing (H2T), thing-to-thing (T2T), or thing-to-things
   (T2Ts).  The term IoT was first coined by the Auto-ID center
   [AUTO-ID] in 1999 which had envisioned a world where every physical
   object is tagged with a radio-frequency identification (RFID) tag
   having a globally unique identifier.  This would not only allow
   tracking of objects in real-time but also allow querying of data
   about them over the Internet.  However, since then, the meaning of
   the Internet of Things has expanded and now encompasses a wide
   variety of technologies, objects and protocols.  It is not surprising
   that the IoT has received significant attention from the research
   community to (re)design, apply, and use standard Internet technology
   and protocols for the IoT.

   The things that are part of the Internet of Things are computing
   devices that understand and react to the environment they reside in.
   These things are also often referred to as smart objects or smart
   devices.  The introduction of IPv6 [RFC6568] and CoAP [RFC7252] as
   fundamental building blocks for IoT applications allows connecting
   IoT hosts to the Internet.  This brings several advantages including:
   (i) a homogeneous protocol ecosystem that allows simple integration
   with other Internet hosts; (ii) simplified development for devices
   that significantly vary in their capabilities; (iii) a unified
   interface for applications, removing the need for application-level
   proxies.  These building blocks greatly simplify the deployment of
   the envisioned scenarios which range from building automation to
   production environments and personal area networks.

   This document presents an overview of important security aspects for
   the Internet of Things.  We begin by discussing the lifecycle of a
   thing in Section 2.  In Section 3, we discuss security threats for
   the IoT and methodologies for managing these threats when designing a
   secure system.  Section 4 reviews existing IP-based (security)
   protocols for the IoT and briefly summarizes existing guidelines and
   regulations.  Section 5 identifies remaining challenges for a secure
   IoT and discusses potential solutions.  Section 6 includes final
   remarks and conclusions.  This document can be used by IoT standards

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   specifications as a reference for details about security
   considerations applying to the specified system or protocol.

   The first draft version of this document was submitted in March 2011.
   Initial draft versions of this document were presented and discussed
   during the CORE meetings at IETF 80 and later.  Discussions on
   security lifecycle at IETF 92 (March 2015) evolved into more general
   security considerations.  Thus, the draft was selected to address the
   T2TRG work item on the security considerations and challenges for the
   Internet of Things.  Further updates of the draft were presented and
   discussed during the T2TRG meetings at IETF 96 (July 2016) and IETF
   97 (November 2016) and at the joint interim in Amsterdam (March
   2017).  This document has been reviewed by, commented on, and
   discussed extensively for a period of nearly six years by a vast
   majority of T2TRG and related group members; the number of which
   certainly exceeds 100 individuals.  It is the consensus of T2TRG that
   the security considerations described in this document should be
   published in the IRTF Stream of the RFC series.  This document does
   not constitute a standard.

2.  The Thing Lifecycle

   The lifecycle of a thing refers to the operational phases of a thing
   in the context of a given application or use case.  Figure 1 shows
   the generic phases of the lifecycle of a thing.  This generic
   lifecycle is applicable to very different IoT applications and
   scenarios.  For instance, [RFC7744] provides an overview of relevant
   IoT use cases.

   In this document, we consider a Building Automation and Control (BAC)
   system to illustrate the lifecycle and the meaning of these different
   phases.  A BAC system consists of a network of interconnected nodes
   that performs various functions in the domains of HVAC (Heating,
   Ventilating, and Air Conditioning), lighting, safety, etc.  The nodes
   vary in functionality and a large majority of them represent
   resource-constrained devices such as sensors and luminaries.  Some
   devices may be battery operated or may rely on energy harvesting.
   This requires us to also consider devices that sleep during their
   operation to save energy.  In our BAC scenario, the life of a thing
   starts when it is manufactured.  Due to the different application
   areas (i.e., HVAC, lighting, or safety) nodes/things are tailored to
   a specific task.  It is therefore unlikely that one single
   manufacturer will create all nodes in a building.  Hence,
   interoperability as well as trust bootstrapping between nodes of
   different vendors is important.

   The thing is later installed and commissioned within a network by an
   installer during the bootstrapping phase.  Specifically, the device

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   identity and the secret keys used during normal operation may be
   provided to the device during this phase.  Different subcontractors
   may install different IoT devices for different purposes.
   Furthermore, the installation and bootstrapping procedures may not be
   a discrete event and may stretch over an extended period.  After
   being bootstrapped, the device and the system of things are in
   operational mode and execute the functions of the BAC system.  During
   this operational phase, the device is under the control of the system
   owner and used by multiple system users.  For devices with lifetimes
   spanning several years, occasional maintenance cycles may be
   required.  During each maintenance phase, the software on the device
   can be upgraded or applications running on the device can be
   reconfigured.  The maintenance tasks can be performed either locally
   or from a backend system.  Depending on the operational changes to
   the device, it may be required to re-bootstrap at the end of a
   maintenance cycle.  The device continues to loop through the
   operational phase and the eventual maintenance phases until the
   device is decommissioned at the end of its lifecycle.  However, the
   end-of-life of a device does not necessarily mean that it is
   defective and rather denotes a need to replace and upgrade the
   network to the next-generation devices for additional functionality.
   Therefore, the device can be removed and re-commissioned to be used
   in a different system under a different owner thereby starting the
   lifecycle all over again.

   We note that the presented lifecycle represents to some extend a
   simplified model.  For instance, it is possible to argue that the
   lifecycle does not start when a tangible device is manufactured but
   rather when the oldest bit of code that ends up in the device - maybe
   from an open source project or from the used operating system - was
   written.  Similarly, the lifecycle could also include an on-the-shelf
   phase and a phase where a device is re-badged by some vendor who is
   not the original manufacturer.  Such phases can significantly
   complicate other phases such as maintenance and bootstrapping.
   Finally, other potential end-states can be, e.g., a vendor that end-
   of-life's a device type that is still in use or a situation in which
   a device is simply forgotten but remains functional.

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    _Manufactured           _SW update          _Decommissioned
   /                       /                   /
   |   _Installed          |   _ Application   |   _Removed &
   |  /                    |  / reconfigured   |  /  replaced
   |  |   _Commissioned    |  |                |  |
   |  |  /                 |  |                |  |   _Reownership &
   |  |  |    _Application |  |   _Application |  |  / recommissioned
   |  |  |   /   running   |  |  / running     |  |  |
   |  |  |   |             |  |  |             |  |  |             \\
   +##+##+###+#############+##+##+#############+##+##+##############>>>
       \/  \______________/ \/  \_____________/ \___/         time //
       /           /         \          \          \
   Bootstrapping  /      Maintenance &   \     Maintenance &
                 /      re-bootstrapping  \   re-bootstrapping
           Operational                Operational

       Figure 1: The lifecycle of a thing in the Internet of Things

   Security is a key requirement in any communication system.  However,
   security is an even more critical requirement in real-world IoT
   deployments for several reasons.  First, compromised IoT systems can
   not only endanger the privacy and security of a user, but can also
   cause physical harm.  This is because IoT systems often comprise
   sensors, actuators and other connected devices in the physical
   environment of the user which could adversely affect the user if they
   are compromised.  Second, a vulnerable IoT system means that an
   attacker can alter the functionality of a device from a given
   manufacturer.  This not only affects the manufacturer's brand image,
   but can also leak information that is very valuable for the
   manufacturer (such as proprietary algorithms).  Third, the impact of
   attacking an IoT system goes beyond a specific device or an isolated
   system since compromised IoT systems can be misused at scale.  For
   example, they may be used to perform a Distributed Denial of Service
   (DDoS) attack that limits the availability of other networks and
   services.  The fact that many IoT systems rely on standard IP
   protocols allows for easier system integration, but this also makes
   standard attacks applicable to a wide number of devices deployed in
   multiple systems.  This results in new requirements regarding the
   implementation of security.

   The term security subsumes a wide range of primitives, protocols, and
   procedures.  Firstly, it includes the basic provision of security
   services that include confidentiality, authentication, integrity,
   authorization, source authentication, and availability along with
   some augmented services, such as duplicate detection and detection of
   stale packets (timeliness).  These security services can be
   implemented by means of a combination of cryptographic mechanisms,
   such as block ciphers, hash functions, or signature algorithms, and

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   non-cryptographic mechanisms, which implement authorization and other
   security policy enforcement aspects.  For ensuring security in IoT
   networks, we should not only focus on the required security services,
   but also pay special attention to how these services are realized in
   the overall system and how the security functionalities are executed
   in practice.

3.  Security Threats and Managing Risk

   Security threats in related IP protocols have been analyzed in
   multiple documents including Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) over
   Transport Layer Security (TLS) (HTTPS) [RFC2818], Constrained
   Application Protocol (COAP) [RFC7252], IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless
   Personal Area Networks (6LoWPAN) [RFC4919], Access Node Control
   Protocol (ANCP) [RFC5713], Domain Name System (DNS) [RFC3833], IPv6
   Neighbor Discovery (ND) [RFC3756], and Protocol for Carrying
   Authentication and Network Access (PANA) [RFC4016].  In this section,
   we specifically discuss the threats that could compromise an
   individual thing, or the network as a whole.  Note that these set of
   threats might go beyond the scope of Internet protocols but we gather
   them here for the sake of completeness:

   1.   Vulnerable Software/Code: Things in the Internet of Things rely
        on software that might contain severe bugs and/or bad design
        choices.  This makes the things vulnerable to many different
        types of attacks, depending on the criticality of the bugs,
        e.g., buffer overflows or lack of authentication.  This can be
        considered as one of the most important security threat.  The
        large-scale distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack,
        popularly known as the Mirai botnet, was caused by things that
        had well-known or easy-to-guess passwords for configuration.

   2.   Privacy threat: The tracking of a thing's location and usage may
        pose a privacy risk to people around it.  For instance, an
        attacker can infer privacy sensitive information from the data
        gathered and communicated by individual things.  Such
        information may subsequently be sold to interested parties for
        marketing purposes and targeted advertising.  In extreme cases,
        such information might be used to track dissidents in oppressive
        regimes.  Unlawful surveillance and interception of traffic to/
        from a thing by intelligence agencies is also a privacy threat.

   3.   Cloning of things: During the manufacturing process of a thing,
        an untrusted factory can easily clone the physical
        characteristics, firmware/software, or security configuration of
        the thing.  Deployed things might also be compromised and their
        software reverse engineered allowing for cloning or software
        modifications.  Such a cloned thing may be sold at a cheaper

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        price in the market, and yet can function normally as a genuine
        thing.  For example, two cloned devices can still be associated
        and work with each other.  In the worst-case scenario, a cloned
        device can be used to control a genuine device or perform an
        attack.  One should note here, that an untrusted factory may
        also change functionality of the cloned thing, resulting in
        degraded functionality with respect to the genuine thing
        (thereby, inflicting potential damage to the reputation of the
        original thing manufacturer).  Moreover, additional
        functionality can be introduced in the cloned thing, an example
        of such functionality is a backdoor.

   4.   Malicious substitution of things: During the installation of a
        thing, a genuine thing may be substituted with a similar variant
        (of lower quality) without being detected.  The main motivation
        may be cost savings, where the installation of lower-quality
        things (for example, non-certified products) may significantly
        reduce the installation and operational costs.  The installers
        can subsequently resell the genuine things to gain further
        financial benefits.  Another motivation may be to inflict damage
        to the reputation of a competitor's offerings.

   5.   Eavesdropping attack: During the commissioning of a thing into a
        network, it may be susceptible to eavesdropping, especially if
        operational keying materials, security parameters, or
        configuration settings, are exchanged in clear using a wireless
        medium or if used cryptographic algorithms are not suitable for
        the envisioned lifetime of the device and the system.  After
        obtaining the keying material, the attacker might be able to
        recover the secret keys established between the communicating
        entities, thereby compromising the authenticity and
        confidentiality of the communication channel, as well as the
        authenticity of commands and other traffic exchanged over this
        communication channel.  When the network is in operation, T2T
        communication may be eavesdropped upon if the communication
        channel is not sufficiently protected or in the event of session
        key compromise due to protocol weaknesses or a long period of
        usage without key renewal or updates.  Messages can also be
        recorded and processed offline at a later time.

   6.   Man-in-the-middle attack: Both the commissioning phase and
        operational phases may also be vulnerable to man-in-the-middle
        attacks.  For example, when keying material between
        communicating entities is exchanged in the clear and the
        security of the key establishment protocol depends on the tacit
        assumption that no third party can eavesdrop during the
        execution of this protocol.  Additionally, device authentication
        or device authorization may be non-trivial, or may need support

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        of a human decision process, since things usually do not have
        a-priori knowledge about each other and cannot always
        differentiate friends and foes via completely automated
        mechanisms.

   7.   Firmware attacks: When a thing is in operation or maintenance
        phase, its firmware or software may be updated to allow for new
        functionality or new features.  An attacker may be able to
        exploit such a firmware upgrade by replacing the thing's
        software with malicious software, thereby influencing the
        operational behavior of the thing.  For example, an attacker
        could add a piece of malicious code to the firmware that will
        cause it to periodically report the energy usage of the lamp to
        a data repository for analysis.  Similarly, devices whose
        software has not been properly maintained and updated might
        contain vulnerabilities that might be exploited by attackers to
        replace the firmware on the device.

   8.   Extraction of private information: IoT devices (such as sensors,
        actuators, etc.) are often physically unprotected in their
        ambient environment and they could easily be captured by an
        attacker.  An attacker with physical access may then attempt to
        extract private information such as keys (for example, device's
        key, private-key, group key), sensed data (for example,
        healthcare status of a user), configuration parameters (for
        example, the Wi-Fi key), or proprietary algorithms (for example,
        algorithm performing some data analytics task).  Even when the
        data originating from a thing is encrypted, attackers can
        perform traffic analysis to deduce meaningful information which
        might compromise the privacy of the thing's owner and/or user.

   9.   Routing attack: As highlighted in [ID-Daniel], routing
        information in IoT networks can be spoofed, altered, or
        replayed, in order to create routing loops, attract/repel
        network traffic, extend/shorten source routes, etc.  Other
        relevant routing attacks include 1) Sinkhole attack (or
        blackhole attack), where an attacker declares himself to have a
        high-quality route/path to the base station, thus allowing him
        to do manipulate all packets passing through it. 2) Selective
        forwarding, where an attacker may selectively forward packets or
        simply drop a packet. 3) Wormhole attack, where an attacker may
        record packets at one location in the network and tunnel them to
        another location, thereby influencing perceived network behavior
        and potentially distorting statistics, thus greatly impacting
        the functionality of routing. 4) Sybil attack, whereby an
        attacker presents multiple identities to other things in the
        network.

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   10.  Elevation of privilege: An attacker with low privileges can
        misuse additional flaws in the implemented authentication and
        authorization mechanisms of a thing to gain more privileged
        access to the thing and its data.

   11.  Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack: Often things have very limited
        memory and computation capabilities.  Therefore, they are
        vulnerable to resource exhaustion attack.  Attackers can
        continuously send requests to specific things so as to deplete
        their resources.  This is especially dangerous in the Internet
        of Things since an attacker might be located in the backend and
        target resource-constrained devices that are part of a
        constrained node network [RFC7228].  DoS attack can also be
        launched by physically jamming the communication channel.
        Network availability can also be disrupted by flooding the
        network with a large number of packets.  On the other hand,
        things compromised by attackers can be used to disrupt the
        operation of other networks or systems by means of a Distributed
        DoS (DDoS) attack.

   To deal with above threats it is required to find and apply suitable
   security mitigations.  However, new threats and exploits appear on a
   daily basis and products are deployed in different environments prone
   to different types of threats.  Thus, ensuring a proper level of
   security in an IoT system at any point of time is challenging.  To
   address this challenge, some of the following methodologies can be
   used:

   1.  A Business Impact Analysis (BIA) assesses the consequences of the
       loss of basic security attributes: confidentiality, integrity and
       availability in an IoT system.  These consequences might include
       the impact from lost data, reduced sales, increased expenses,
       regulatory fines, customer dissatisfaction, etc.  Performing a
       business impact analysis allows a business to determine the
       relevance of having a proper security design.

   2.  A Risk Assessment (RA) analyzes security threats to an IoT system
       while considering their likelihood and impact.  It also includes
       categorizing each of them with a risk level.  Risks classified as
       moderate or high must be mitigated, i.e., the security
       architecture should be able to deal with those threat.

   3.  A privacy impact assessment (PIA) aims at assessing the
       Personally Identifiable Information (PII) that is collected,
       processed, or used in an IoT system.  By doing so, the goal is to
       fulfill applicable legal requirements, determine risks and
       effects of manipulation and loss of PII.

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   4.  Procedures for incident reporting and mitigation refer to the
       methodologies that allow becoming aware of any security issues
       that affect an IoT system.  Furthermore, this includes steps
       towards the actual deployment of patches that mitigate the
       identified vulnerabilities.

   BIA, RA, and PIA should generally be realized during the creation of
   a new IoT system or when deploying significant system/feature
   upgrades.  In general, it is recommended to re-assess them on a
   regular basis taking into account new use cases and/or threats.

4.  State-of-the-Art

   This section is organized as follows.  Section 4.1 summarizes state-
   of-the-art on IP-based IoT systems, within IETF and in other
   standardization bodies.  Section 4.2 summarizes state-of-the-art on
   IP-based security protocols and their usage.  Section 4.3 discusses
   guidelines and regulations for securing IoT as proposed by other
   bodies.

4.1.  IP-based IoT Protocols and Standards

   Nowadays, there exists a multitude of control protocols for IoT.  For
   BAC systems, the ZigBee standard [ZB], BACNet [BACNET], and DALI
   [DALI] play key roles.  Recent trends, however, focus on an all-IP
   approach for system control.

   In this setting, a number of IETF working groups are designing new
   protocols for resource-constrained networks of smart things.  The
   6LoWPAN working group [WG-6LoWPAN] for example has defined methods
   and protocols for the efficient transmission and adaptation of IPv6
   packets over IEEE 802.15.4 networks [RFC4944].

   The CoRE working group [WG-CoRE] has specified the Constrained
   Application Protocol (CoAP) [RFC7252].  CoAP is a RESTful protocol
   for constrained devices that is modeled after HTTP and typically runs
   over UDP to enable efficient application-level communication for
   things.

   In many smart object networks, the smart objects are dispersed and
   have intermittent reachability either because of network outages or
   because they sleep during their operational phase to save energy.  In
   such scenarios, direct discovery of resources hosted on the
   constrained server might not be possible.  To overcome this barrier,
   the CoRE working group is specifying the concept of a Resource
   Directory (RD) [ID-rd].  The Resource Directory hosts descriptions of
   resources which are located on other nodes.  These resource
   descriptions are specified as CoRE link format [RFC6690].

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   While CoAP defines a standard communication protocol, a format for
   representing sensor measurements and parameters over CoAP is
   required.  The Sensor Measurement Lists (SenML) [ID-senml] is a
   specification that defines media types for simple sensor measurements
   and parameters.  It has a minimalistic design so that constrained
   devices with limited computational capabilities can easily encode
   their measurements and, at the same time, servers can efficiently
   collect large number of measurements.

   In many IoT deployments, the resource-constrained smart objects are
   connected to the Internet via a gateway that is directly reachable.
   For example, an IEEE 802.11 Access Point (AP) typically connects the
   client devices to the Internet over just one wireless hop.  However,
   some deployments of smart object networks require routing between the
   smart objects themselves.  The IETF has therefore defined the IPv6
   Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) [RFC6550].
   RPL provides support for multipoint-to-point traffic from resource-
   constrained smart objects towards a more resourceful central control
   point, as well as point-to-multipoint traffic in the reverse
   direction.  It also supports point-to-point traffic between the
   resource-constrained devices.  A set of routing metrics and
   constraints for path calculation in RPL are also specified [RFC6551].

   The IPv6 over Networks of Resource-constrained Nodes (6lo) [WG-6lo]
   working group of the IETF has specified how IPv6 packets can be
   transmitted over various link layer protocols that are commonly
   employed for resource-constrained smart object networks.  There is
   also ongoing work to specify IPv6 connectivity for a Non-Broadcast
   Multi-Access (NBMA) mesh network that is formed by IEEE 802.15.4
   TimeSlotted Channel Hopping (TSCH} links [ID-6tisch].  Other link
   layer protocols for which IETF has specified or is currently
   specifying IPv6 support include Bluetooth [RFC7668], Digital Enhanced
   Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) Ultra Low Energy (ULE) air
   interface [RFC8105], and Near Field Communication (NFC) [ID-6lonfc].

   Baker and Meyer [RFC6272] identify which IP protocols can be used in
   smart grid environments.  They give advice to smart grid network
   designers on how they can decide on a profile of the Internet
   protocol suite for smart grid networks.

   The Low Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN) working [WG-LPWAN] group is
   analyzing features, requirements, and solutions to adapt IP-based
   protocols to networks such as LORA [lora], SigFox [sigfox], NB-IoT
   [nbiot], etc.  These networking technologies enable a smart thing to
   run for years on a single coin-cell by relying on a star network
   topology and using optimized radio modulation with frame sizes in the
   order of tens of bytes.  Such networks bring new security challenges

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   since most existing security mechanism do not work well with such
   resource constraints.

   JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) is a lightweight text
   representation format for structured data [RFC8259].  It is often
   used for transmitting serialized structured data over the network.
   IETF has defined specifications for encoding cryptographic keys,
   encrypted content, signed content, and claims to be transferred
   between two parties as JSON objects.  They are referred to as JSON
   Web Keys (JWK) [RFC7517], JSON Web Encryption (JWE) [RFC7516], JSON
   Web Signatures (JWS) [RFC7515] and JSON Web Token (JWT) [RFC7519].

   An alternative to JSON, Concise Binary Object Representation (CBOR)
   [RFC7049] is a concise binary data format that is used for
   serialization of structured data.  It is designed for resource-
   constrained nodes and therefore it aims to provide a fairly small
   message size with minimal implementation code, and extensibility
   without the need for version negotiation.  CBOR Object Signing and
   Encryption (COSE) [RFC8152] specifies how to encode cryptographic
   keys, message authentication codes, encrypted content, and signatures
   with CBOR.

   The Light-Weight Implementation Guidance (LWIG) working group
   [WG-LWIG] is collecting experiences from implementers of IP stacks in
   constrained devices.  The working group has already produced
   documents such as RFC7815 [RFC7815] which defines how a minimal
   Internet Key Exchange Version 2 (IKEv2) initiator can be implemented.

   The Thing-2-Thing Research Group (T2TRG) [RG-T2TRG] is investigating
   the remaining research issues that need to be addressed to quickly
   turn the vision of IoT into a reality where resource-constrained
   nodes can communicate with each other and with other more capable
   nodes on the Internet.

   Additionally, industry alliances and other standardization bodies are
   creating constrained IP protocol stacks based on the IETF work.  Some
   important examples of this include:

   1.  Thread [Thread]: Specifies the Thread protocol that is intended
       for a variety of IoT devices.  It is an IPv6-based network
       protocol that runs over IEEE 802.15.4.

   2.  Industrial Internet Consortium [IIoT]: The consortium defines
       reference architectures and security frameworks for development,
       adoption and widespread use of Industrial Internet technologies
       based on existing IETF standards.

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   3.  Internet Protocol for Smart Objects IPSO [IPSO]: The alliance
       specifies a common object model that enables application software
       on any device to interoperate with other conforming devices.

   4.  OneM2M [OneM2M]: The standards body defines technical and API
       specifications for IoT devices.  It aims to create a service
       layer that can run on any IoT device hardware and software.

   5.  Open Connectivity Foundation (OCF) [OCF]: The foundation develops
       standards and certifications primarily for IoT devices that use
       Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) as the application layer
       protocol.

   6.  Fairhair Alliance [Fairhair]: Specifies an IoT middleware to
       enable interoperability between different application standards
       used in building automation and lighting systems.

   7.  OMA LWM2M [LWM2M]: OMA Lightweight M2M is a standard from the
       Open Mobile Alliance for M2M and IoT device management.  LWM2M
       relies on CoAP as the application layer protocol and uses a
       RESTful architecture for remote management of IoT devices.

4.2.  Existing IP-based Security Protocols and Solutions

   There are three main security objectives for IoT networks: 1.
   protecting the IoT network from attackers.  2. protecting IoT
   applications and thus, the things and users.  3. protecting the rest
   of the Internet and other things from attacks that use compromised
   things as an attack platform.

   In the context of the IP-based IoT deployments, consideration of
   existing Internet security protocols is important.  There are a wide
   range of specialized as well as general-purpose security solutions
   for the Internet domain such as IKEv2/IPsec [RFC7296], TLS [RFC5246],
   DTLS [RFC6347], HIP [RFC7401], PANA [RFC5191], and EAP [RFC3748].

   TLS provides security for TCP and requires a reliable transport.
   DTLS secures and uses datagram-oriented protocols such as UDP.  Both
   protocols are intentionally kept similar and share the same ideology
   and cipher suites.  The CoAP base specification [RFC7252] provides a
   description of how DTLS can be used for securing CoAP.  It proposes
   three different modes for using DTLS: the PreSharedKey mode, where
   nodes have pre-provisioned keys for initiating a DTLS session with
   another node, RawPublicKey mode, where nodes have asymmetric-key
   pairs but no certificates to verify the ownership, and Certificate
   mode, where public keys are certified by a certification authority.
   An IoT implementation profile [RFC7925] is defined for TLS version

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   1.2 and DTLS version 1.2 that offers communication security for
   resource-constrained nodes.

   There is ongoing work to define an authorization and access-control
   framework for resource-constrained nodes.  The Authentication and
   Authorization for Constrained Environments (ACE) [WG-ACE] working
   group is defining a solution to allow only authorized access to
   resources that are hosted on a smart object server and are identified
   by a URI.  The current proposal [ID-aceoauth] is based on the OAuth
   2.0 framework [RFC6749] and it comes with profiles intended for
   different communication scenarios, e.g.  DTLS Profile for
   Authentication and Authorization for Constrained Environments
   [ID-acedtls].

   The CoAP base specification [RFC7252] provides a description of how
   DTLS can be used for securing CoAP.  It proposes three different
   modes for using DTLS: the PreSharedKey mode, where nodes have pre-
   provisioned keys for initiating a DTLS session with another node,
   RawPublicKey mode, where nodes have asymmetric-key pairs but no
   certificates to verify the ownership, and Certificate mode, where
   public keys are certified by a certification authority.  An IoT
   implementation profile [RFC7925] is defined for TLS version 1.2 and
   DTLS version 1.2 that offers communication security for resource-
   constrained nodes.

   OSCORE [ID-OSCORE] is a proposal that protects CoAP messages by
   wrapping them in the CBOR Object Signing and Encryption (COSE)
   [RFC8152] format.  Thus, OSCORE falls in the category of object
   security and it can be applied wherever CoAP can be used.  The
   advantage of OSCORE over DTLS is that it provides some more
   flexibility when dealing with end-to-end security.  Section 5.1.3
   discusses this further.

   The Automated Certificate Management Environment (ACME) [WG-ACME]
   working group is specifying conventions for automated X.509
   certificate management.  This includes automatic validation of
   certificate issuance, certificate renewal, and certificate
   revocation.  While the initial focus of working group is on domain
   name certificates (as used by web servers), other uses in some IoT
   deployments is possible.

   The Internet Key Exchange (IKEv2)/IPsec - as well as the less used
   Host Identity protocol (HIP) - reside at or above the network layer
   in the OSI model.  Both protocols are able to perform an
   authenticated key exchange and set up the IPsec for secure payload
   delivery.  Currently, there are also ongoing efforts to create a HIP
   variant coined Diet HIP [ID-HIP-DEX] that takes constrained networks
   and nodes into account at the authentication and key exchange level.

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   Migault et al.  [ID-dietesp] are working on a compressed version of
   IPsec so that it can easily be used by resource-constrained IoT
   devices.  They rely on the Internet Key Exchange Protocol version 2
   (IKEv2) for negotiating the compression format.

   The Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) [RFC3748] is an
   authentication framework supporting multiple authentication methods.
   EAP runs directly over the data link layer and, thus, does not
   require the deployment of IP.  It supports duplicate detection and
   retransmission, but does not allow for packet fragmentation.  The
   Protocol for Carrying Authentication for Network Access (PANA) is a
   network-layer transport for EAP that enables network access
   authentication between clients and the network infrastructure.  In
   EAP terms, PANA is a UDP-based EAP lower layer that runs between the
   EAP peer and the EAP authenticator.

4.3.  IoT Security Guidelines

   Attacks on and from IoT devices have become common in the last years,
   for instance, large scale Denial of Service (DoS) attacks on the
   Internet Infrastructure from compromised IoT devices.  This fact has
   prompted many different standards bodies and consortia to provide
   guidelines for developers and the Internet community at large to
   build secure IoT devices and services.  A subset of the different
   guidelines and ongoing projects are as follows:

   1.   GSMA IoT security guidelines [GSMAsecurity]: GSMA has published
        a set of security guidelines for the benefit of new IoT product
        and service providers.  The guidelines are aimed at device
        manufacturers, service providers, developers and network
        operators.  An enterprise can complete an IoT Security Self-
        Assessment to demonstrate that its products and services are
        aligned with the security guidelines of the GSMA.

   2.   BITAG Internet of Things (IoT) Security and Privacy
        Recommendations [BITAG]: Broadband Internet Technical Advisory
        Group (BITAG) has also published recommendations for ensuring
        security and privacy of IoT device users.  BITAG observes that
        many IoT devices are shipped from the factory with software that
        is already outdated and vulnerable.  The report also states that
        many devices with vulnerabilities will not be fixed either
        because the manufacturer does not provide updates or because the
        user does not apply them.  The recommendations include that IoT
        devices should function without cloud and Internet connectivity,
        and that all IoT devices should have methods for automatic
        secure software updates.

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   3.   CSA New Security Guidance for Early Adopters of the IoT [CSA]:
        The Cloud Security Alliance (CSA) recommendations for early
        adopters of IoT encourages enterprises to implement security at
        different layers of the protocol stack.  It also recommends
        implementation of an authentication/authorization framework for
        IoT deployments.  A complete list of recommendations is
        available in the report [CSA].

   4.   U.S.  Department of Homeland Security [DHS]: DHS has put forth
        six strategic principles that would enable IoT developers,
        manufacturers, service providers and consumers to maintain
        security as they develop, manufacture, implement or use network-
        connected IoT devices.

   5.   NIST [NIST-Guide]: The NIST special publication urges enterprise
        and US federal agencies to address security throughout the
        systems engineering process.  The publication builds upon the
        ISO/IEC 15288 standard and augments each process in the system
        lifecycle with security enhancements.

   6.   NIST [nist_lightweight_project]: NIST is running a project on
        lightweight cryptography with the purpose of: (i) identifying
        application areas for which standard cryptographic algorithms
        are too heavy, classifying them according to some application
        profiles to be determined; (ii) determining limitations in those
        existing cryptographic standards; and (iii) standardizing
        lightweight algorithms that can be used in specific application
        profiles.

   7.   OWASP [OWASP]: Open Web Application Security Project (OWASP)
        provides security guidance for IoT manufactures, developers and
        consumers.  OWASP also includes guidelines for those who intend
        to test and analyze IoT devices and applications.

   8.   IoT Security foundation [IoTSecFoundation]: IoT security
        foundation has published a document that enlists various
        considerations that need to be taken into account when
        developing IoT applications.  For example, the document states
        that IoT devices could use hardware-root of trust to ensure that
        only authorized software runs on the devices.

   9.   NHTSA [NHTSA]: The US National Highway Traffic Safety
        Administration provides a set of non-binding guidance to the
        automotive industry for improving the cyber security of
        vehicles.  While some of the guidelines are general, the
        document provides specific recommendations for the automotive
        industry such as how various automotive manufacturer can share
        cyber security vulnerabilities discovered.

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   10.  Best Current Practices (BCP) for IoT devices [ID-Moore]: This
        document provides a list of minimum requirements that vendors of
        Internet of Things (IoT) devices should to take into account
        while developing applications, services and firmware updates in
        order to reduce the frequency and severity of security incidents
        that arise from compromised IoT devices.

   11.  ENISA [ENISA_ICS]: The European Union Agency for Network and
        Information Security published a document on communication
        network dependencies for ICS/SCADA systems in which security
        vulnerabilities, guidelines and general recommendations are
        summarized.

   Other guideline and recommendation documents may exist or may later
   be published.  This list should be considered non-exhaustive.
   Despite the acknowledgment that security in the Internet is needed
   and the existence of multiple guidelines, the fact is that many IoT
   devices and systems have very limited security.  There are multiple
   reasons for this.  For instance, some manufactures focus on
   delivering a product without paying enough attention to security.
   This may be because of lack of expertise or limited budget.  However,
   the deployment of such insecure devices poses a severe threat on the
   privacy and safety of users.  The vast amount of devices and their
   inherent mobile nature also implies that an initially secure system
   can become insecure if a compromised device gains access to the
   system at some point in time.  Even if all other devices in a given
   environment are secure, this does not prevent external (passive)
   attacks caused by insecure devices.  Recently the Federal
   Communications Commission (FCC) [FCC] has stated the need for
   additional regulation of IoT systems.  It is possible that we may see
   other such regional regulations in the future.

5.  Challenges for a Secure IoT

   In this section, we take a closer look at the various security
   challenges in the operational and technical features of IoT and then
   discuss how existing Internet security protocols cope with these
   technical and conceptual challenges through the lifecycle of a thing.
   This discussion should neither be understood as a comprehensive
   evaluation of all protocols, nor can it cover all possible aspects of
   IoT security.  Yet, it aims at showing concrete limitations and
   challenges in some IoT design areas rather than giving an abstract
   discussion.  In this regard, the discussion handles issues that are
   most important from the authors' perspectives.

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5.1.  Constraints and Heterogeneous Communication

   Coupling resource-constrained networks and the powerful Internet is a
   challenge because the resulting heterogeneity of both networks
   complicates protocol design and system operation.  In the following
   we briefly discuss the resource constraints of IoT devices and the
   consequences for the use of Internet Protocols in the IoT domain.

5.1.1.  Resource Constraints

   IoT deployments are often characterized by lossy and low-bandwidth
   communication channels.  IoT devices are also often constrained in
   terms of CPU, memory, and energy budget available [RFC7228].  These
   characteristics directly impact the threats to and the design of
   security protocols for the IoT domain.  First, the use of small
   packets, for example, IEEE 802.15.4 supports 127-byte sized packets
   at the physical layer, may result in fragmentation of larger packets
   required by security protocols.  This may open new attack vectors for
   state exhaustion DoS attacks, which is especially tragic, for
   example, if the fragmentation is caused by large key exchange
   messages of security protocols.  Moreover, packet fragmentation
   commonly downgrades the overall system performance due to fragment
   losses and the need for retransmissions.  For instance, fate-sharing
   packet flight as implemented by DTLS might aggravate the resulting
   performance loss.

   The size and number of messages should be minimized to reduce memory
   requirements and optimize bandwidth usage.  In this context, layered
   approaches involving a number of protocols might lead to worse
   performance in resource-constrained devices since they combine the
   headers of the different protocols.  In some settings, protocol
   negotiation can increase the number of exchanged messages.  To
   improve performance during basic procedures such as, for example,
   bootstrapping, it might be a good strategy to perform those
   procedures at a lower layer.

   Small CPUs and scarce memory limit the usage of resource-expensive
   cryptographic primitives such as public-key cryptography as used in
   most Internet security standards.  This is especially true if the
   basic cryptographic blocks need to be frequently used or the
   underlying application demands low delay.

   There are ongoing efforts to reduce the resource consumption of
   security protocols by using more efficient underlying cryptographic
   primitives such as Elliptic Curve Cryptography [RFC5246].  The
   specification of elliptic curve X25519 [ecc25519], stream ciphers
   such as ChaCha [ChaCha], Diet HIP [ID-HIP-DEX], and [RFC5903] are all
   examples of efforts to make security protocols more resource

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   efficient.  Additionally, all security protocols have been revised in
   the last few years to enable cryptographic agility, making
   cryptographic primitives interchangeable.  However, these
   improvements are only a first step in reducing the computation and
   communication overhead of Internet protocols.  The question remains
   if other approaches can be applied to leverage key agreement in these
   heavily resource-constrained environments.

   A further fundamental need refers to the limited energy budget
   available to IoT nodes.  Careful protocol (re)design and usage is
   required to reduce not only the energy consumption during normal
   operation, but also under DoS attacks.  Since the energy consumption
   of IoT devices differs from other device classes, judgments on the
   energy consumption of a particular protocol cannot be made without
   tailor-made IoT implementations.

5.1.2.  Denial-of-Service Resistance

   The tight memory and processing constraints of things naturally
   alleviate resource exhaustion attacks.  Especially in unattended T2T
   communication, such attacks are difficult to notice before the
   service becomes unavailable (for example, because of battery or
   memory exhaustion).  As a DoS countermeasure, DTLS, IKEv2, HIP, and
   Diet HIP implement return routability checks based on a cookie
   mechanism to delay the establishment of state at the responding host
   until the address of the initiating host is verified.  The
   effectiveness of these defenses strongly depend on the routing
   topology of the network.  Return routability checks are particularly
   effective if hosts cannot receive packets addressed to other hosts
   and if IP addresses present meaningful information as is the case in
   today's Internet.  However, they are less effective in broadcast
   media or when attackers can influence the routing and addressing of
   hosts (for example, if hosts contribute to the routing infrastructure
   in ad-hoc networks and meshes).

   In addition, HIP implements a puzzle mechanism that can force the
   initiator of a connection (and potential attacker) to solve
   cryptographic puzzles with variable difficulties.  Puzzle-based
   defense mechanisms are less dependent on the network topology but
   perform poorly if CPU resources in the network are heterogeneous (for
   example, if a powerful Internet host attacks a thing).  Increasing
   the puzzle difficulty under attack conditions can easily lead to
   situations where a powerful attacker can still solve the puzzle while
   weak IoT clients cannot and are excluded from communicating with the
   victim.  Still, puzzle-based approaches are a viable option for
   sheltering IoT devices against unintended overload caused by
   misconfiguration or malfunctioning things.

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5.1.3.  End-to-end security, protocol translation, and the role of
        middleboxes

   The term end-to-end security often has multiple interpretations.
   Here, we consider end-to-end security in the context end-to-end IP
   connectivity, from a sender to a receiver.  Services such as
   confidentiality and integrity protection on packet data, message
   authentication codes or encryption are typically used to provide end-
   to-end security.  These protection methods render the protected parts
   of the packets immutable as rewriting is either not possible because
   a) the relevant information is encrypted and inaccessible to the
   gateway or b) rewriting integrity-protected parts of the packet would
   invalidate the end-to-end integrity protection.

   Protocols for constrained IoT networks are not exactly identical to
   their larger Internet counterparts for efficiency and performance
   reasons.  Hence, more or less subtle differences between protocols
   for constrained IoT networks and Internet protocols will remain.
   While these differences can be bridged with protocol translators at
   middleboxes, they may become major obstacles if end-to-end security
   measures between IoT devices and Internet hosts are needed.

   If access to data or messages by the middleboxes is required or
   acceptable, then a diverse set of approaches for handling such a
   scenario are available.  Note that some of these approaches affect
   the meaning of end-to-end security in terms of integrity and
   confidentiality since the middleboxes will be able to either decrypt
   or modify partially the exchanged messages:

   1.  Sharing credentials with middleboxes enables them to transform
       (for example, decompress, convert, etc.) packets and re-apply the
       security measures after transformation.  This method abandons
       end-to-end security and is only applicable to simple scenarios
       with a rudimentary security model.

   2.  Reusing the Internet wire format for IoT makes conversion between
       IoT and Internet protocols unnecessary.  However, it can lead to
       poor performance in some use cases because IoT specific
       optimizations (for example, stateful or stateless compression)
       are not possible.

   3.  Selectively protecting vital and immutable packet parts with a
       message authentication code or with encryption requires a careful
       balance between performance and security.  Otherwise this
       approach might either result in poor performance or poor security
       depending on which parts are selected for protection, where they
       are located in the original packet, and how they are processed.
       [ID-OSCORE] proposes a solution in this direction by encrypting

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       and integrity protecting most of the message fields except those
       parts that a middlebox needs to read or change.

   4.  Homomorphic encryption techniques can be used in the middlebox to
       perform certain operations.  However, this is limited to data
       processing involving arithmetic operations.  Furthermore,
       performance of existing libraries, for example, SEAL [SEAL] is
       still too limited and it is is not widely applicable yet.

   5.  Message authentication codes that sustain transformation can be
       realized by considering the order of transformation and
       protection (for example, by creating a signature before
       compression so that the gateway can decompress the packet without
       recalculating the signature).  Such an approach enables IoT
       specific optimizations but is more complex and may require
       application-specific transformations before security is applied.
       Moreover, the usage of encrypted or integrity-protected data
       prevents middleboxes from transforming packets.

   6.  Mechanisms based on object security can bridge the protocol
       worlds, but still require that the two worlds use the same object
       security formats.  Currently the object security format based on
       CBOR Object Signing and Encryption (COSE) [RFC8152] (IoT
       protocol) is different from JSON Object Signing and Encryption
       (JOSE) [RFC7520] or Cryptographic Message Syntax (CMS) [RFC5652].
       Legacy devices relying on traditional Internet protocols will
       need to update to the newer protocols for constrained
       environments to enable real end-to-end security.  Furthermore,
       middleboxes do not have any access to the data and this approach
       does not prevent an attacker from modifying relevant fields in
       CoAP.

   To the best of our knowledge, none of the mentioned security
   approaches that focus on the confidentiality and integrity of the
   communication exchange between two IP end-points provide the perfect
   solution in this problem space.

   We finally note that end-to-end security can also be considered in
   the context of availability: making sure that the messages are
   delivered.  In this case, the end-points cannot control this, but the
   middleboxes play a fundamental role to make sure that exchanged
   messages are not dropped, for example, due to a DDoS attack.

5.1.4.  New network architectures and paradigm

   There is a multitude of new link layer protocols that aim to address
   the resource-constrained nature of IoT devices.  For example, the
   IEEE 802.11 ah [IEEE802ah] has been specified for extended range and

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   lower energy consumption to support Internet of Things (IoT) devices.
   Similarly, Low-Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN) protocols such as LoRa
   [lora], Sigfox [sigfox], NarrowBand IoT (NB-IoT) [nbiot] are all
   designed for resource-constrained devices that require long range and
   low bit rates.  [ID-lpwan] provides an informational overview of the
   set of LPWAN technologies being considered by the IETF.  It also
   identifies the potential gaps that exist between the needs of those
   technologies and the goal of running IP in such networks.  While
   these protocols allow IoT devices to conserve energy and operate
   efficiently, they also add additional security challenges.  For
   example, the relatively small MTU can make security handshakes with
   large X509 certificates a significant overhead.  At the same time,
   new communication paradigms also allow IoT devices to communicate
   directly amongst themselves with or without support from the network.
   This communication paradigm is also referred to as Device-to-Device
   (D2D) or Machine-to-Machine (M2M) or Thing-to-Thing (T2T)
   communication and it is motivated by a number of features such as
   improved network performance, lower latency and lower energy
   requirements.

5.2.  Bootstrapping of a Security Domain

   Creating a security domain from a set of previously unassociated IoT
   devices is a key operation in the lifecycle of a thing in an IoT
   network.  This aspect is further elaborated and discussed in the
   T2TRG draft on bootstrapping [ID-bootstrap].

5.3.  Operational Challenges

   After the bootstrapping phase, the system enters the operational
   phase.  During the operational phase, things can use the state
   information created during the bootstrapping phase in order to
   exchange information securely.  In this section, we discuss the
   security challenges during the operational phase.  Note that many of
   the challenges discussed in Section 5.1 apply during the operational
   phase.

5.3.1.  Group Membership and Security

   Group key negotiation is an important security service for IoT
   communication patterns in which a thing sends some data to multiple
   things or data flows from multiple things towards a thing.  All
   discussed protocols only cover unicast communication and therefore,
   do not focus on group-key establishment.  This applies in particular
   to (D)TLS and IKEv2.  Thus, a solution is required in this area.  A
   potential solution might be to use the Diffie-Hellman keys - that are
   used in IKEv2 and HIP to setup a secure unicast link - for group

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   Diffie-Hellman key-negotiations.  However, Diffie-Hellman is a
   relatively heavy solution, especially if the group is large.

   Symmetric and asymmetric keys can be used in group communication.
   Asymmetric keys have the advantage that they can provide source
   authentication.  However, doing broadcast encryption with a single
   public/private key pair is also not feasible.  Although a single
   symmetric key can be used to encrypt the communication or compute a
   message authentication code, it has inherent risks since the capture
   of a single node can compromise the key shared throughout the
   network.  The usage of symmetric-keys also does not provide source
   authentication.  Another factor to consider is that asymmetric
   cryptography is more resource-intensive than symmetric key solutions.
   Thus, the security risks and performance trade-offs of applying
   either symmetric or asymmetric keys to a given IoT use case need to
   be well-analyzed according to risk and usability assessments.
   [ID-multicast] is looking at a combination of symmetric (for
   encryption) and asymmetric (for authentication) in the same packet.

   Conceptually, solutions that provide secure group communication at
   the network layer (IPsec/IKEv2, HIP/Diet HIP) may have an advantage
   in terms of the cryptographic overhead when compared to application-
   focused security solutions (TLS/ DTLS).  This is due to the fact that
   application-focused solutions require cryptographic operations per
   group application, whereas network layer approaches may allow sharing
   secure group associations between multiple applications (for example,
   for neighbor discovery and routing or service discovery).  Hence,
   implementing shared features lower in the communication stack can
   avoid redundant security measures.  However, it is important to note
   that sharing security contexts among different applications involves
   potential security threats, e.g., if one of the applications is
   malicious and monitors exchanged messages or injects fake messages.
   In the case of OSCORE, it provides security for CoAP group
   communication as defined in RFC7390, i.e., based on multicast IP.  If
   the same security association is reused for each application, then
   this solution does not seem to have more cryptographic overhead
   compared to IPsec.

   Several group key solutions have been developed by the MSEC working
   group [WG-MSEC] of the IETF.  The MIKEY architecture [RFC4738] is one
   example.  While these solutions are specifically tailored for
   multicast and group broadcast applications in the Internet, they
   should also be considered as candidate solutions for group key
   agreement in IoT.  The MIKEY architecture for example describes a
   coordinator entity that disseminates symmetric keys over pair-wise
   end-to-end secured channels.  However, such a centralized approach
   may not be applicable in a distributed IoT environment, where the

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   choice of one or several coordinators and the management of the group
   key is not trivial.

5.3.2.  Mobility and IP Network Dynamics

   It is expected that many things (for example, wearable sensors, and
   user devices) will be mobile in the sense that they are attached to
   different networks during the lifetime of a security association.
   Built-in mobility signaling can greatly reduce the overhead of the
   cryptographic protocols because unnecessary and costly re-
   establishments of the session (possibly including handshake and key
   agreement) can be avoided.  IKEv2 supports host mobility with the
   MOBIKE [RFC4555] and [RFC4621] extension.  MOBIKE refrains from
   applying heavyweight cryptographic extensions for mobility.  However,
   MOBIKE mandates the use of IPsec tunnel mode which requires the
   transmission of an additional IP header in each packet.

   HIP offers a simple yet effective mobility management by allowing
   hosts to signal changes to their associations [RFC8046].  However,
   slight adjustments might be necessary to reduce the cryptographic
   costs, for example, by making the public-key signatures in the
   mobility messages optional.  Diet HIP does not define mobility yet
   but it is sufficiently similar to HIP and can use the same
   mechanisms.  DTLS provides some mobility support by relying on a
   connection ID (CID).  The use of connection IDs can provide all the
   mobility functionality described in [ID-Williams], except, sending
   the updated location.  The specific need for IP-layer mobility mainly
   depends on the scenario in which the nodes operate.  In many cases,
   mobility supported by means of a mobile gateway may suffice to enable
   mobile IoT networks, such as body sensor networks.  Using message
   based application-layer security solutions such as OSCORE [ID-OSCORE]
   can also alleviate the problem of re-establishing lower-layer
   sessions for mobile nodes.

5.4.  Secure software update and cryptographic agility

   IoT devices are often expected to stay functional for several years
   and decades even though they might operate unattended with direct
   Internet connectivity.  Software updates for IoT devices are
   therefore not only required for new functionality, but also to
   eliminate security vulnerabilities due to software bugs, design
   flaws, or deprecated algorithms.  Software bugs might remain even
   after careful code review.  Implementations of security protocols
   might contain (design) flaws.  Cryptographic algorithms can also
   become insecure due to advances in cryptanalysis.  Therefore, it is
   necessary that devices which are incapable of verifying a
   cryptographic signature are not exposed to the Internet (even
   indirectly).

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   Schneier [SchneierSecurity] in his essay highlights several
   challenges that hinder mechanisms for secure software update of IoT
   devices.  First, there is a lack of incentives for manufactures,
   vendors and others on the supply chain to issue updates for their
   devices.  Second, parts of the software running on IoT devices is
   simply a binary blob without any source code available.  Since the
   complete source code is not available, no patches can be written for
   that piece of code.  Lastly Schneier points out that even when
   updates are available, users generally have to manually download and
   install them.  However, users are never alerted about security
   updates and at many times do not have the necessary expertise to
   manually administer the required updates.

   The FTC staff report on Internet of Things - Privacy & Security in a
   Connected World [FTCreport] and the Article 29 Working Party Opinion
   8/2014 on the Recent Developments on the Internet of Things
   [Article29] also document the challenges for secure remote software
   update of IoT devices.  They note that even providing such a software
   update capability may add new vulnerabilities for constrained
   devices.  For example, a buffer overflow vulnerability in the
   implementation of a software update protocol (TR69) [TR69] and an
   expired certificate in a hub device [wink] demonstrate how the
   software update process itself can introduce vulnerabilities.

   Powerful IoT devices that run general purpose operating systems can
   make use of sophisticated software update mechanisms known from the
   desktop world.  However, resource-constrained devices typically do
   not have any operating system and are often not equipped with a
   memory management unit or similar tools.  Therefore, they might
   require more specialized solutions.

   An important requirement for secure software and firmware updates is
   source authentication.  Source authentication requires the resource-
   constrained things to implement public-key signature verification
   algorithms.  As stated in Section 5.1.1, resource-constrained things
   have limited amount of computational capabilities and energy supply
   available which can hinder the amount and frequency of cryptographic
   processing that they can perform.  In addition to source
   authentication, software updates might require confidential delivery
   over a secure (encrypted) channel.  The complexity of broadcast
   encryption can force the usage of point-to-point secure links -
   however, this increases the duration of a software update in a large
   system.  Alternatively, it may force the usage of solutions in which
   the software update is delivered to a gateway, and then distributed
   to the rest of the system with a network key.  Sending large amounts
   of data that later needs to be assembled and verified over a secure
   channel can consume a lot of energy and computational resources.
   Correct scheduling of the software updates is also a crucial design

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   challenge.  For example, a user of connected light bulbs would not
   want them to update and restart at night.  More importantly, the user
   would not want all the lights to update at the same time.

   Software updates in IoT systems are also needed to update old and
   insecure cryptographic primitives.  However, many IoT systems, some
   of which are already deployed, are not designed with provisions for
   cryptographic agility.  For example, many devices come with a
   wireless radio that has an AES128 hardware co-processor.  These
   devices solely rely on the co-processor for encrypting and
   authenticating messages.  A software update adding support for new
   cryptographic algorithms implemented solely in software might not fit
   on these devices due to limited memory, or might drastically hinder
   its operational performance.  This can lead to the use of old and
   insecure devices.  Therefore, it is important to account for the fact
   that cryptographic algorithms would need to be updated and consider
   the following when planning for cryptographic agility:

   1.  Would it be safe to use the existing cryptographic algorithms
       available on the device for updating with new cryptographic
       algorithms that are more secure?

   2.  Will the new software-based implementation fit on the device
       given the limited resources?

   3.  Would the normal operation of existing IoT applications on the
       device be severely hindered by the update?

   Finally, we would like to highlight the previous and ongoing work in
   the area of secure software and firmware updates at the IETF.
   [RFC4108] describes how Cryptographic Message Syntax (CMS) [RFC5652]
   can be used to protect firmware packages.  The IAB has also organized
   a workshop to understand the challenges for secure software update of
   IoT devices.  A summary of the recommendations to the standards
   community derived from the discussions during that workshop have been
   documented [RFC8240].  Finally, a new working group called Software
   Updates for Internet of Things (suit) [WG-SUIT] is currently being
   chartered at the IETF.  The working group aims to standardize a new
   version [RFC4108] that reflects the best current practices for
   firmware update based on experience with IoT deployments.  It will
   specifically work on describing an IoT firmware update architecture
   and specifying a manifest format that contains meta-data about the
   firmware update package.

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5.5.  End-of-Life

   Like all commercial devices, IoT devices have a given useful
   lifetime.  The term end-of-life (EOL) is used by vendors or network
   operators to indicate the point of time in which they limit or end
   support for the IoT device.  This may be planned or unplanned (for
   example when the vendor or manufacturer goes bankrupt or when a
   network operator moves to a different type of networking technology).
   A user should still be able to use and perhaps even update the
   device.  This requires for some form of authorization handover.

   Although this may seem far-fetched given the commercial interests and
   market dynamics, we have examples from the mobile world where the
   devices have been functional and up-to-date long after the original
   vendor stopped supporting the device.  CyanogenMod for Android
   devices, and OpenWrt for home routers are two such instances where
   users have been able to use and update their devices even after the
   official EOL.  Admittedly it is not easy for an average user to
   install and configure their devices on their own.  With the
   deployment of millions of IoT devices, simpler mechanisms are needed
   to allow users to add new root-of-trusts and install software and
   firmware from other sources once the device is EOL.

5.6.  Verifying device behavior

   Users using new IoT appliances such as Internet-connected smart
   televisions, speakers and cameras are often unaware that these
   devices can undermine their privacy.  Recent revelations have shown
   that many IoT device vendors have been collecting sensitive private
   data through these connected appliances with or without appropriate
   user warnings [cctv].

   An IoT device user/owner would like to monitor and verify its
   operational behavior.  For instance, the user might want to know if
   the device is connecting to the server of the manufacturer for any
   reason.  This feature - connecting to the manufacturer's server - may
   be necessary in some scenarios, such as during the initial
   configuration of the device.  However, the user should be kept aware
   of the data that the device is sending back to the vendor.  For
   example, the user might want to know if his/her TV is sending data
   when he/she inserts a new USB stick.

   Providing such information to the users in an understandable fashion
   is challenging.  This is because IoT devices are not only resource-
   constrained in terms of their computational capability, but also in
   terms of the user interface available.  Also, the network
   infrastructure where these devices are deployed will vary
   significantly from one user environment to another.  Therefore, where

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   and how this monitoring feature is implemented still remains an open
   question.

   Manufacturer Usage Description (MUD) files [ID-MUD] are perhaps a
   first step towards implementation of such a monitoring service.  The
   idea behind MUD files is relatively simple: IoT devices would
   disclose the location of their MUD file to the network during
   installation.  The network can then retrieve those files, and learn
   about the intended behavior of the devices stated by the device
   manufacturer.  A network monitoring service could then warn the user/
   owner of devices if they don't behave as expected.

   Many devices and software services that automatically learn and
   monitor the behavior of different IoT devices in a given network are
   commercially available.  Such monitoring devices/services can be
   configured by the user to limit network traffic and trigger alarms
   when unexpected operation of IoT devices is detected.

5.7.  Testing: bug hunting and vulnerabilities

   Given that IoT devices often have inadvertent vulnerabilities, both
   users and developers would want to perform extensive testing on their
   IoT devices, networks, and systems.  Nonetheless, since the devices
   are resource-constrained and manufactured by multiple vendors, some
   of them very small, devices might be shipped with very limited
   testing, so that bugs can remain and can be exploited at a later
   stage.  This leads to two main types of challenges:

   1.  It remains to be seen how the software testing and quality
       assurance mechanisms used from the desktop and mobile world will
       be applied to IoT devices to give end users the confidence that
       the purchased devices are robust.  Bodies such as the European
       Cyber Security Organization (ECSO) [ECSO] are working on
       processes for security certification of IoT devices.

   2.  It is also an open question how the combination of devices from
       multiple vendors might actually lead to dangerous network
       configurations.  For example, if combination of specific devices
       can trigger unexpected behavior.  It is needless to say that the
       security of the whole system is limited by its weakest point.

5.8.  Quantum-resistance

   Many IoT systems that are being deployed today will remain
   operational for many years.  With the advancements made in the field
   of quantum computers, it is possible that large-scale quantum
   computers are available in the future for performing cryptanalysis on
   existing cryptographic algorithms and cipher suites.  If this

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   happens, it will have two consequences.  First, functionalities
   enabled by means of RSA/ECC - namely key exchange, public-key
   encryption and signature - would not be secure anymore due to Shor's
   algorithm.  Second, the security level of symmetric algorithms will
   decrease, for example, the security of a block cipher with a key size
   of b bits will only offer b/2 bits of security due to Grover's
   algorithm.

   The above scenario becomes more urgent when we consider the so called
   "harvest and decrypt" attack in which an attacker can start to
   harvest (store) encrypted data today, before a quantum-computer is
   available, and decrypt it years later, once a quantum computer is
   available.  Similarly, many IoT devices that are being deployed today
   will remain operational for a decade or even longer.  During this
   time, digital signatures used to sign software updates might become
   obsolete making the secure update of IoT devices challenging.

   This situation would require us to move to quantum-resistant
   alternatives, in particular, for those functionalities involving key
   exchange, public-key encryption and signatures.  [ID-c2pq] describes
   when quantum computers may become widely available and what steps are
   necessary for transition to cryptographic algorithms that provide
   security even in presence of quantum computers.  While future
   planning is hard, it may be a necessity in certain critical IoT
   deployments which are expected to last decades or more.  Although
   increasing the key-size of the different algorithms is definitely an
   option, it would also incur additional computational overhead and
   network traffic.  This would be undesirable in most scenarios.  There
   have been recent advancements in quantum-resistant cryptography.

   We refer to [ETSI_GR_QSC_001] for an extensive overview of existing
   quantum-resistant cryptography.  [RFC7696] provides guidelines for
   cryptographic algorithm agility.

5.9.  Privacy protection

   People will eventually be surrounded by hundreds of connected IoT
   devices.  Even if the communication links are encrypted and
   protected, information about people might still be collected or
   processed for different purposes.  The fact that IoT devices in the
   vicinity of people might enable more pervasive monitoring can
   negatively impact their privacy.  For instance, imagine the scenario
   where a static presence sensor emits a packet due to the presence or
   absence of people in its vicinity.  In such a scenario, anyone who
   can observe the packet, can gather critical privacy-sensitive
   information.

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   Such information about people is referred to as personal data in the
   European Union (EU) or Personally identifiable information (PII) in
   the United States (US), In particular, the General Data Protection
   Regulation (GDPR) [GDPR] defines personal data as: 'any information
   relating to an identified or identifiable natural person ('data
   subject'); an identifiable natural person is one who can be
   identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an
   identifier such as a name, an identification number, location data,
   an online identifier or to one or more factors specific to the
   physical, physiological, genetic, mental, economic, cultural or
   social identity of that natural person'.

   Ziegeldorf [Ziegeldorf] defines privacy in IoT as a threefold
   guarantee:

   1.  Awareness of the privacy risks imposed by IoT devices and
       services.  This awareness is achieved by means of transparent
       practices by the data controller, i.e., the entity that is
       providing IoT devices and/or services.

   2.  Individual control over the collection and processing of personal
       information by IoT devices and services.

   3.  Awareness and control of the subsequent use and dissemination of
       personal information by data controllers to any entity outside
       the subject's personal control sphere.  This point implies that
       the data controller must be accountable for its actions on the
       personal information.

   Based on this definition, several threats to the privacy of users
   have been documented [Ziegeldorf] and [RFC6973], in particular
   considering the IoT environment and its lifecycle:

   1.  Identification - refers to the identification of the users, their
       IoT devices, and generated data.

   2.  Localization - relates to the capability of locating a user and
       even tracking them, e.g., by tracking MAC addresses in Wi-Fi or
       Bluetooth.

   3.  Profiling - is about creating a profile of the user and their
       preferences.

   4.  Interaction - occurs when a user has been profiled and a given
       interaction is preferred, presenting (for example, visually) some
       information that discloses private information.

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   5.  Lifecycle transitions - take place when devices are, for example,
       is sold without properly removing private data.

   6.  Inventory attacks - happen if specific information about IoT
       devices in possession of a user is disclosed.

   7.  Linkage - is about when information of two of more IoT systems
       (or other data sets) is combined so that a broader view of the
       personal data captured can be created.

   When IoT systems are deployed, the above issues should be considered
   to ensure that private data remains private.  These issues are
   particularly challenging in environments in which multiple users with
   different privacy preferences interact with the same IoT devices.
   For example, an IoT device controlled by user A (low privacy
   settings) might leak private information about another user B (high
   privacy settings).  How to deal with these threats in practice is an
   area of ongoing research.

5.10.  Reverse engineering considerations

   Many IoT devices are resource-constrained and often deployed in
   unattended environments.  Some of these devices can also be purchased
   off-the-shelf or online without any credential-provisioning process.
   Therefore, an attacker can have direct access to the device and apply
   advanced techniques to retrieve information that a traditional black
   box model does not consider.  Example of those techniques are side-
   channel attacks or code disassembly.  By doing this, the attacker can
   try to retrieve data such as:

   1.  long term keys.  These long term keys can be extracted by means
       of a side-channel attack or reverse engineering.  If these keys
       are exposed, then they might be used to perform attacks on
       devices deployed in other locations.

   2.  source code.  Extraction of source code might allow the attacker
       to determine bugs or find exploits to perform other types of
       attacks.  The attacker might also just sell the source code.

   3.  proprietary algorithms.  The attacker can analyze these
       algorithms gaining valuable know-how.  The attacker can also
       create copies of the product (based on those proprietary
       algorithms) or modify the algorithms to perform more advanced
       attacks.

   4.  configuration or personal data.  The attacker might be able to
       read personal data, e.g., heatlhcare data, that has been stored
       on a device.

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   One existing solution to prevent such data leaks is the use of a
   secure element, a tamper-resistant device that is capable of securely
   hosting applications and their confidential data.  Another potential
   solution is the usage of of Physical Unclonable Function (PUFs) that
   serves as unique digital fingerprint of a hardware device.  PUFs can
   also enable other functionalities such as secure key storage.
   Protection against such data leakage patterns is non-trivial since
   devices are inherently resource-constrained.  An open question is
   whether there are any viable techniques to protect IoT devices and
   the data in the devices in such an adversarial model.

5.11.  Trustworthy IoT Operation

   Flaws in the design and implementation of IoT devices and networks
   can lead to security vulnerabilities.  A common flaw is the use of
   well-known or easy-to-guess passwords for configuration of IoT
   devices.  Many such compromised IoT devices can be found on the
   Internet by means of tools such as Shodan [shodan].  Once discovered,
   these compromised devices can be exploited at scale, for example, to
   launch DDoS attacks.  Dyn, a major DNS , was attacked by means of a
   DDoS attack originating from a large IoT botnet composed of thousands
   of compromised IP-cameras [dyn-attack].  There are several open
   research questions in this area:

   1.  How to avoid vulnerabilities in IoT devices that can lead to
       large-scale attacks?

   2.  How to detect sophisticated attacks against IoT devices?

   3.  How to prevent attackers from exploiting known vulnerabilities at
       a large scale?

   Some ideas are being explored to address this issue.  One of the
   approaches relies on the use of Manufacturer Usage Description (MUD)
   files [ID-MUD].  As explained earlier, this proposal requires IoT
   devices to disclose the location of their MUD file to the network
   during installation.  The network can then (i) retrieve those files,
   (ii) learn from the manufacturers the intended usage of the devices,
   for example, which services they need to access, and then (iii)
   create suitable filters and firewall rules.

6.  Conclusions and Next Steps

   This Internet Draft provides IoT security researchers, system
   designers and implementers with an overview of security requirements
   in the IP-based Internet of Things.  We discuss the security threats,
   state-of-the-art, and challenges.

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   Although plenty of steps have been realized during the last few years
   (summarized in Section 4.1) and many organizations are publishing
   general recommendations (Section 4.3) describing how IoT should be
   secured, there are many challenges ahead that require further
   attention.  Challenges of particular importance are bootstrapping of
   security, group security, secure software updates, long-term security
   and quantum-resistance, privacy protection, data leakage prevention -
   where data could be cryptographic keys, personal data, or even
   algorithms - and ensuring trustworthy IoT operation.

   Authors of new IoT specifications and implementors need to consider
   how all the security challenges discussed in this draft (and those
   that emerge later) affect their work.  The authors of IoT
   specifications not only need to put in a real effort towards
   addressing the security challenges, but also clearly documenting how
   the security challenges are addressed.  This would reduce the chances
   of security vulnerabilities in the code written by implementors of
   those specifications.

7.  Security Considerations

   This entire memo deals with security issues.

8.  IANA Considerations

   This document contains no request to IANA.

9.  Acknowledgments

   We gratefully acknowledge feedback and fruitful discussion with
   Tobias Heer, Robert Moskowitz, Thorsten Dahm, Hannes Tschofenig,
   Carsten Bormann, Barry Raveendran, Ari Keranen, Goran Selander, Fred
   Baker, Vicent Roca, Thomas Fossati and Eliot Lear.  We acknowledge
   the additional authors of the previous version of this document Sye
   Loong Keoh, Rene Hummen and Rene Struik.

10.  Informative References

   [Article29]
              "Opinion 8/2014 on the on Recent Developments on the
              Internet of Things", Web http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-
              protection/article-29/documentation/opinion-
              recommendation/files/2014/wp223_en.pdf, n.d..

   [AUTO-ID]  "AUTO-ID LABS", Web http://www.autoidlabs.org/, September
              2010.

   [BACNET]   "BACnet", Web http://www.bacnet.org/, February 2011.

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   [BITAG]    "Internet of Things (IoT) Security and Privacy
              Recommendations", Web http://www.bitag.org/report-
              internet-of-things-security-privacy-recommendations.php,
              n.d..

   [cctv]     "Backdoor In MVPower DVR Firmware Sends CCTV Stills To an
              Email Address In China", Web
              https://hardware.slashdot.org/story/16/02/17/0422259/
              backdoor-in-mvpower-dvr-firmware-sends-cctv-stills-to-an-
              email-address-in-china, n.d..

   [ChaCha]   Bernstein, D., "ChaCha, a variant of Salsa20", Web
              http://cr.yp.to/chacha/chacha-20080128.pdf, n.d..

   [CSA]      "Security Guidance for Early Adopters of the Internet of
              Things (IoT)", Web
              https://downloads.cloudsecurityalliance.org/whitepapers/Se
              curity_Guidance_for_Early_Adopters_of_the_Internet_of_Thin
              gs.pdf, n.d..

   [DALI]     "DALI", Web http://www.dalibydesign.us/dali.html, February
              2011.

   [DHS]      "Strategic Principles For Securing the Internet of Things
              (IoT)", Web
              https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/
              Strategic_Principles_for_Securing_the_Internet_of_Things-
              2016-1115-FINAL....pdf, n.d..

   [dyn-attack]
              "Dyn Analysis Summary Of Friday October 21 Attack", Web
              https://dyn.com/blog/dyn-analysis-summary-of-friday-
              october-21-attack/, n.d..

   [ecc25519]
              Bernstein, D., "Curve25519: new Diffie-Hellman speed
              records",
              Web https://cr.yp.to/ecdh/curve25519-20060209.pdf, n.d..

   [ECSO]     "European Cyber Security Organization", Web
              https://www.ecs-org.eu/, n.d..

   [ENISA_ICS]
              "Communication network dependencies for ICS/SCADA
              Systems", European Union Agency For Network And
              Information Security , February 2017.

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   [ETSI_GR_QSC_001]
              "Quantum-Safe Cryptography (QSC);Quantum-safe algorithmic
              framework", European Telecommunications Standards
              Institute (ETSI) , June 2016.

   [Fairhair]
              "Fairhair Alliance", Web https://www.fairhair-
              alliance.org/, n.d..

   [FCC]      "Federal Communications Comssion Response 12-05-2016",
              FCC , February 2016.

   [FTCreport]
              "FTC Report on Internet of Things Urges Companies to Adopt
              Best Practices to Address Consumer Privacy and Security
              Risks", Web https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-
              releases/2015/01/ftc-report-internet-things-urges-
              companies-adopt-best-practices, n.d..

   [GDPR]     "The EU General Data Protection Regulation",
              Web https://www.eugdpr.org/, n.d..

   [GSMAsecurity]
              "GSMA IoT Security Guidelines", Web
              http://www.gsma.com/connectedliving/future-iot-
              networks/iot-security-guidelines/, n.d..

   [ID-6lonfc]
              Choi, Y., Hong, Y., Youn, J., Kim, D., and J. Choi,
              "Transmission of IPv6 Packets over Near Field
              Communication", draft-ietf-6lo-nfc-09 (work in progress),
              January 2018.

   [ID-6tisch]
              Thubert, P., "An Architecture for IPv6 over the TSCH mode
              of IEEE 802.15.4", draft-ietf-6tisch-architecture-13 (work
              in progress), November 2017.

   [ID-acedtls]
              Gerdes, S., Bergmann, O., Bormann, C., Selander, G., and
              L. Seitz, "Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)
              Profile for Authentication and Authorization for
              Constrained Environments (ACE)", draft-ietf-ace-dtls-
              authorize-03 (work in progress), March 2018.

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   [ID-aceoauth]
              Seitz, L., Selander, G., Wahlstroem, E., Erdtman, S., and
              H. Tschofenig, "Authentication and Authorization for
              Constrained Environments (ACE) using the OAuth 2.0
              Framework (ACE-OAuth)", draft-ietf-ace-oauth-authz-11
              (work in progress), March 2018.

   [ID-bootstrap]
              Sarikaya, B., Sethi, M., and A. Sangi, "Secure IoT
              Bootstrapping: A Survey", draft-sarikaya-t2trg-
              sbootstrapping-03 (work in progress), February 2017.

   [ID-c2pq]  Hoffman, P., "The Transition from Classical to Post-
              Quantum Cryptography", draft-hoffman-c2pq-03 (work in
              progress), February 2018.

   [ID-Daniel]
              Park, S., Kim, K., Haddad, W., Chakrabarti, S., and J.
              Laganier, "IPv6 over Low Power WPAN Security Analysis",
              draft-daniel-6lowpan-security-analysis-05 (work in
              progress), March 2011.

   [ID-dietesp]
              Migault, D., Guggemos, T., and C. Bormann, "Diet-ESP: a
              flexible and compressed format for IPsec/ESP", draft-mglt-
              6lo-diet-esp-02 (work in progress), July 2016.

   [ID-HIP-DEX]
              Moskowitz, R., "HIP Diet EXchange (DEX)", draft-moskowitz-
              hip-rg-dex-06 (work in progress), May 2012.

   [ID-lpwan]
              Farrell, S., "LPWAN Overview", draft-ietf-lpwan-
              overview-10 (work in progress), February 2018.

   [ID-Moore]
              Moore, K., Barnes, R., and H. Tschofenig, "Best Current
              Practices for Securing Internet of Things (IoT) Devices",
              draft-moore-iot-security-bcp-01 (work in progress), July
              2017.

   [ID-MUD]   Lear, E., Droms, R., and D. Romascanu, "Manufacturer Usage
              Description Specification", draft-ietf-opsawg-mud-19 (work
              in progress), April 2018.

Garcia-Morchon, et al.  Expires October 10, 2018               [Page 37]
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   [ID-multicast]
              Tiloca, M., Selander, G., Palombini, F., and J. Park,
              "Secure group communication for CoAP", draft-ietf-core-
              oscore-groupcomm-01 (work in progress), March 2018.

   [ID-OSCORE]
              Selander, G., Mattsson, J., Palombini, F., and L. Seitz,
              "Object Security for Constrained RESTful Environments
              (OSCORE)", draft-ietf-core-object-security-12 (work in
              progress), March 2018.

   [ID-rd]    Shelby, Z., Koster, M., Bormann, C., Stok, P., and C.
              Amsuess, "CoRE Resource Directory", draft-ietf-core-
              resource-directory-13 (work in progress), March 2018.

   [ID-senml]
              Jennings, C., Shelby, Z., Arkko, J., Keranen, A., and C.
              Bormann, "Media Types for Sensor Measurement Lists
              (SenML)", draft-ietf-core-senml-14 (work in progress),
              April 2018.

   [ID-Williams]
              Williams, M. and J. Barrett, "Mobile DTLS", draft-barrett-
              mobile-dtls-00 (work in progress), March 2009.

   [IEEE802ah]
              "Status of Project IEEE 802.11ah, IEEE P802.11- Task Group
              AH-Meeting Update.",
              Web http://www.ieee802.org/11/Reports/tgah_update.htm,
              n.d..

   [IIoT]     "Industrial Internet Consortium",
              Web http://www.iiconsortium.org/, n.d..

   [IoTSecFoundation]
              "Establishing Principles for Internet of Things Security",
              Web https://iotsecurityfoundation.org/establishing-
              principles-for-internet-of-things-security/, n.d..

   [IPSO]     "IPSO Alliance", Web http://www.ipso-alliance.org, n.d..

   [lora]     "LoRa - Wide Area Networks for IoT", Web https://www.lora-
              alliance.org/, n.d..

   [LWM2M]    "OMA LWM2M", Web
              http://openmobilealliance.org/iot/lightweight-m2m-lwm2m,
              n.d..

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   [nbiot]    "NarrowBand IoT", Web
              http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/tsg_ran/TSG_RAN/TSGR_69/Docs/RP-
              151621.zip, n.d..

   [NHTSA]    "Cybersecurity Best Practices for Modern Vehicles", Web
              https://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nvs/
              pdf/812333_CybersecurityForModernVehicles.pdf, n.d..

   [NIST-Guide]
              Ross, R., McEvilley, M., and J. Oren, "Systems Security
              Engineering", Web
              http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/
              NIST.SP.800-160.pdf, n.d..

   [nist_lightweight_project]
              "NIST lightweight Project", Web www.nist.gov/programs-
              projects/lightweight-cryptography,
              www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2016/10/17/
              sonmez-turan-presentation-lwc2016.pdf, n.d..

   [OCF]      "Open Connectivity Foundation",
              Web https://openconnectivity.org/, n.d..

   [OneM2M]   "OneM2M", Web http://www.onem2m.org/, n.d..

   [OWASP]    "IoT Security Guidance",
              Web https://www.owasp.org/index.php/IoT_Security_Guidance,
              n.d..

   [RFC2818]  Rescorla, E., "HTTP Over TLS", RFC 2818,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC2818, May 2000,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2818>.

   [RFC3748]  Aboba, B., Blunk, L., Vollbrecht, J., Carlson, J., and H.
              Levkowetz, Ed., "Extensible Authentication Protocol
              (EAP)", RFC 3748, DOI 10.17487/RFC3748, June 2004,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3748>.

   [RFC3756]  Nikander, P., Ed., Kempf, J., and E. Nordmark, "IPv6
              Neighbor Discovery (ND) Trust Models and Threats",
              RFC 3756, DOI 10.17487/RFC3756, May 2004,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3756>.

   [RFC3833]  Atkins, D. and R. Austein, "Threat Analysis of the Domain
              Name System (DNS)", RFC 3833, DOI 10.17487/RFC3833, August
              2004, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3833>.

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   [RFC4016]  Parthasarathy, M., "Protocol for Carrying Authentication
              and Network Access (PANA) Threat Analysis and Security
              Requirements", RFC 4016, DOI 10.17487/RFC4016, March 2005,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4016>.

   [RFC4108]  Housley, R., "Using Cryptographic Message Syntax (CMS) to
              Protect Firmware Packages", RFC 4108,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC4108, August 2005,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4108>.

   [RFC4555]  Eronen, P., "IKEv2 Mobility and Multihoming Protocol
              (MOBIKE)", RFC 4555, DOI 10.17487/RFC4555, June 2006,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4555>.

   [RFC4621]  Kivinen, T. and H. Tschofenig, "Design of the IKEv2
              Mobility and Multihoming (MOBIKE) Protocol", RFC 4621,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC4621, August 2006,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4621>.

   [RFC4738]  Ignjatic, D., Dondeti, L., Audet, F., and P. Lin, "MIKEY-
              RSA-R: An Additional Mode of Key Distribution in
              Multimedia Internet KEYing (MIKEY)", RFC 4738,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC4738, November 2006,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4738>.

   [RFC4919]  Kushalnagar, N., Montenegro, G., and C. Schumacher, "IPv6
              over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPANs):
              Overview, Assumptions, Problem Statement, and Goals",
              RFC 4919, DOI 10.17487/RFC4919, August 2007,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4919>.

   [RFC4944]  Montenegro, G., Kushalnagar, N., Hui, J., and D. Culler,
              "Transmission of IPv6 Packets over IEEE 802.15.4
              Networks", RFC 4944, DOI 10.17487/RFC4944, September 2007,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4944>.

   [RFC5191]  Forsberg, D., Ohba, Y., Ed., Patil, B., Tschofenig, H.,
              and A. Yegin, "Protocol for Carrying Authentication for
              Network Access (PANA)", RFC 5191, DOI 10.17487/RFC5191,
              May 2008, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5191>.

   [RFC5246]  Dierks, T. and E. Rescorla, "The Transport Layer Security
              (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2", RFC 5246,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC5246, August 2008,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5246>.

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   [RFC5652]  Housley, R., "Cryptographic Message Syntax (CMS)", STD 70,
              RFC 5652, DOI 10.17487/RFC5652, September 2009,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5652>.

   [RFC5713]  Moustafa, H., Tschofenig, H., and S. De Cnodder, "Security
              Threats and Security Requirements for the Access Node
              Control Protocol (ANCP)", RFC 5713, DOI 10.17487/RFC5713,
              January 2010, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5713>.

   [RFC5903]  Fu, D. and J. Solinas, "Elliptic Curve Groups modulo a
              Prime (ECP Groups) for IKE and IKEv2", RFC 5903,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC5903, June 2010,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5903>.

   [RFC6272]  Baker, F. and D. Meyer, "Internet Protocols for the Smart
              Grid", RFC 6272, DOI 10.17487/RFC6272, June 2011,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6272>.

   [RFC6347]  Rescorla, E. and N. Modadugu, "Datagram Transport Layer
              Security Version 1.2", RFC 6347, DOI 10.17487/RFC6347,
              January 2012, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6347>.

   [RFC6550]  Winter, T., Ed., Thubert, P., Ed., Brandt, A., Hui, J.,
              Kelsey, R., Levis, P., Pister, K., Struik, R., Vasseur,
              JP., and R. Alexander, "RPL: IPv6 Routing Protocol for
              Low-Power and Lossy Networks", RFC 6550,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC6550, March 2012,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6550>.

   [RFC6551]  Vasseur, JP., Ed., Kim, M., Ed., Pister, K., Dejean, N.,
              and D. Barthel, "Routing Metrics Used for Path Calculation
              in Low-Power and Lossy Networks", RFC 6551,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC6551, March 2012,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6551>.

   [RFC6568]  Kim, E., Kaspar, D., and JP. Vasseur, "Design and
              Application Spaces for IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless
              Personal Area Networks (6LoWPANs)", RFC 6568,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC6568, April 2012,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6568>.

   [RFC6690]  Shelby, Z., "Constrained RESTful Environments (CoRE) Link
              Format", RFC 6690, DOI 10.17487/RFC6690, August 2012,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6690>.

   [RFC6749]  Hardt, D., Ed., "The OAuth 2.0 Authorization Framework",
              RFC 6749, DOI 10.17487/RFC6749, October 2012,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6749>.

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   [RFC6973]  Cooper, A., Tschofenig, H., Aboba, B., Peterson, J.,
              Morris, J., Hansen, M., and R. Smith, "Privacy
              Considerations for Internet Protocols", RFC 6973,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC6973, July 2013,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6973>.

   [RFC7049]  Bormann, C. and P. Hoffman, "Concise Binary Object
              Representation (CBOR)", RFC 7049, DOI 10.17487/RFC7049,
              October 2013, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7049>.

   [RFC7228]  Bormann, C., Ersue, M., and A. Keranen, "Terminology for
              Constrained-Node Networks", RFC 7228,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7228, May 2014,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7228>.

   [RFC7252]  Shelby, Z., Hartke, K., and C. Bormann, "The Constrained
              Application Protocol (CoAP)", RFC 7252,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7252, June 2014,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7252>.

   [RFC7296]  Kaufman, C., Hoffman, P., Nir, Y., Eronen, P., and T.
              Kivinen, "Internet Key Exchange Protocol Version 2
              (IKEv2)", STD 79, RFC 7296, DOI 10.17487/RFC7296, October
              2014, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7296>.

   [RFC7401]  Moskowitz, R., Ed., Heer, T., Jokela, P., and T.
              Henderson, "Host Identity Protocol Version 2 (HIPv2)",
              RFC 7401, DOI 10.17487/RFC7401, April 2015,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7401>.

   [RFC7515]  Jones, M., Bradley, J., and N. Sakimura, "JSON Web
              Signature (JWS)", RFC 7515, DOI 10.17487/RFC7515, May
              2015, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7515>.

   [RFC7516]  Jones, M. and J. Hildebrand, "JSON Web Encryption (JWE)",
              RFC 7516, DOI 10.17487/RFC7516, May 2015,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7516>.

   [RFC7517]  Jones, M., "JSON Web Key (JWK)", RFC 7517,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7517, May 2015,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7517>.

   [RFC7519]  Jones, M., Bradley, J., and N. Sakimura, "JSON Web Token
              (JWT)", RFC 7519, DOI 10.17487/RFC7519, May 2015,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7519>.

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   [RFC7520]  Miller, M., "Examples of Protecting Content Using JSON
              Object Signing and Encryption (JOSE)", RFC 7520,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7520, May 2015,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7520>.

   [RFC7668]  Nieminen, J., Savolainen, T., Isomaki, M., Patil, B.,
              Shelby, Z., and C. Gomez, "IPv6 over BLUETOOTH(R) Low
              Energy", RFC 7668, DOI 10.17487/RFC7668, October 2015,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7668>.

   [RFC7696]  Housley, R., "Guidelines for Cryptographic Algorithm
              Agility and Selecting Mandatory-to-Implement Algorithms",
              BCP 201, RFC 7696, DOI 10.17487/RFC7696, November 2015,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7696>.

   [RFC7744]  Seitz, L., Ed., Gerdes, S., Ed., Selander, G., Mani, M.,
              and S. Kumar, "Use Cases for Authentication and
              Authorization in Constrained Environments", RFC 7744,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7744, January 2016,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7744>.

   [RFC7815]  Kivinen, T., "Minimal Internet Key Exchange Version 2
              (IKEv2) Initiator Implementation", RFC 7815,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7815, March 2016,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7815>.

   [RFC7925]  Tschofenig, H., Ed. and T. Fossati, "Transport Layer
              Security (TLS) / Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)
              Profiles for the Internet of Things", RFC 7925,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7925, July 2016,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7925>.

   [RFC8046]  Henderson, T., Ed., Vogt, C., and J. Arkko, "Host Mobility
              with the Host Identity Protocol", RFC 8046,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC8046, February 2017,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8046>.

   [RFC8105]  Mariager, P., Petersen, J., Ed., Shelby, Z., Van de Logt,
              M., and D. Barthel, "Transmission of IPv6 Packets over
              Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) Ultra
              Low Energy (ULE)", RFC 8105, DOI 10.17487/RFC8105, May
              2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8105>.

   [RFC8152]  Schaad, J., "CBOR Object Signing and Encryption (COSE)",
              RFC 8152, DOI 10.17487/RFC8152, July 2017,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8152>.

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   [RFC8240]  Tschofenig, H. and S. Farrell, "Report from the Internet
              of Things Software Update (IoTSU) Workshop 2016",
              RFC 8240, DOI 10.17487/RFC8240, September 2017,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8240>.

   [RFC8259]  Bray, T., Ed., "The JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) Data
              Interchange Format", STD 90, RFC 8259,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC8259, December 2017,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8259>.

   [RG-T2TRG]
              "IRTF Thing-to-Thing (T2TRG) Research Group",
              Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/rg/t2trg/charter/, n.d..

   [SchneierSecurity]
              "The Internet of Things Is Wildly Insecure--And Often
              Unpatchable", Web
              https://www.schneier.com/essays/archives/2014/01/
              the_internet_of_thin.html, n.d..

   [SEAL]     "Simple Encrypted Arithmetic Library - SEAL", Web
              https://www.microsoft.com/en-
              us/research/publication/simple-encrypted-arithmetic-
              library-seal-v2-0/, n.d..

   [shodan]   "Shodan", Web https://www.shodan.io/, n.d..

   [sigfox]   "Sigfox - The Global Communications Service Provider for
              the Internet of Things (IoT)",
              Web https://www.sigfox.com/, n.d..

   [Thread]   "Thread Group", Web http://threadgroup.org/, n.d..

   [TR69]     "Too Many Cooks - Exploiting the Internet-of-TR-
              069-Things", Web https://media.ccc.de/v/31c3_-_6166_-_en_-
              _saal_6_-_201412282145_-_too_many_cooks_-
              _exploiting_the_internet-of-tr-069-things_-
              _lior_oppenheim_-_shahar_tal, n.d..

   [WG-6lo]   "IETF IPv6 over Networks of Resource-constrained Nodes
              (6lo) Working Group",
              Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/6lo/charter/, n.d..

   [WG-6LoWPAN]
              "IETF IPv6 over Low power WPAN (6lowpan) Working Group",
              Web http://tools.ietf.org/wg/6lowpan/, n.d..

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   [WG-ACE]   "IETF Authentication and Authorization for Constrained
              Environments (ACE) Working Group",
              Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/ace/charter/, n.d..

   [WG-ACME]  "Automated Certificate Management Environment Working
              Group", Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/acme/about/,
              n.d..

   [WG-CoRE]  "IETF Constrained RESTful Environment (CoRE) Working
              Group", Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/core/charter/,
              n.d..

   [WG-LPWAN]
              "IETF Low Power Wide-Area Networks Working Group",
              Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/lpwan/, n.d..

   [WG-LWIG]  "IETF Light-Weight Implementation Guidance (LWIG) Working
              Group", Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/lwig/charter/,
              n.d..

   [WG-MSEC]  "IETF MSEC Working Group",
              Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/msec/, n.d..

   [WG-SUIT]  "IETF Software Updates for Internet of Things (suit)",
              Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/group/suit/about/, n.d..

   [wink]     "Wink's Outage Shows Us How Frustrating Smart Homes Could
              Be", Web http://www.wired.com/2015/04/smart-home-
              headaches/, n.d..

   [ZB]       "ZigBee Alliance", Web http://www.zigbee.org/, February
              2011.

   [Ziegeldorf]
              Ziegeldorf, J., Garcia-Morchon, O., and K. Wehrle,,
              "Privacy in the Internet of Things: Threats and
              Challenges", Security and Communication Networks - Special
              Issue on Security in a Completely Interconnected World ,
              2013.

Authors' Addresses

Garcia-Morchon, et al.  Expires October 10, 2018               [Page 45]
Internet-Draft                IoT Security                    April 2018

   Oscar Garcia-Morchon
   Philips IP&S
   High Tech Campus 5
   Eindhoven, 5656 AA
   The Netherlands

   Email: oscar.garcia-morchon@philips.com

   Sandeep S. Kumar
   Philips Research
   High Tech Campus
   Eindhoven, 5656 AA
   The Netherlands

   Email: sandeep.kumar@philips.com

   Mohit Sethi
   Ericsson
   Hirsalantie 11
   Jorvas, 02420
   Finland

   Email: mohit@piuha.net

Garcia-Morchon, et al.  Expires October 10, 2018               [Page 46]