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State of the Art and Challenges for the Internet of Things
draft-irtf-t2trg-iot-seccons-02

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This is an older version of an Internet-Draft that was ultimately published as RFC 8576.
Authors Oscar Garcia-Morchon , Sandeep Kumar , Mohit Sethi
Last updated 2017-03-31
Replaces draft-garcia-core-security
RFC stream Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
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draft-irtf-t2trg-iot-seccons-02
Network Working Group                                  O. Garcia-Morchon
Internet-Draft                                              Philips IP&S
Intended status: Informational                                  S. Kumar
Expires: October 2, 2017                                Philips Research
                                                                M. Sethi
                                                                Ericsson
                                                          March 31, 2017

       State of the Art and Challenges for the Internet of Things
                      draft-irtf-t2trg-iot-seccons-02

Abstract

   The Internet of Things concept refers to the usage of standard
   Internet protocols to allow for human-to-thing or thing-to-thing
   communication.  The security needs are well-recognized and and many
   standardization steps have been taken, for example, specification of
   CoAP over DTLS.  However, security challenges still exist and there
   are some use cases that lack a suitable solution.  This document
   first provides an overview of security architecture, its deployment
   model, security needs in the context of the lifecycle of a thing, as
   well as the state of the art on IoT security.  Then, we discuss the
   concept of security profiles for the successful roll-out of secure
   IoT applications and describe remaining security challenges in the
   IoT.

Status of This Memo

   This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
   provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.

   Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
   Task Force (IETF).  Note that other groups may also distribute
   working documents as Internet-Drafts.  The list of current Internet-
   Drafts is at http://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.

   Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
   and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
   time.  It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
   material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."

   This Internet-Draft will expire on October 2, 2017.

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Copyright Notice

   Copyright (c) 2017 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
   document authors.  All rights reserved.

   This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
   Provisions Relating to IETF Documents
   (http://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of
   publication of this document.  Please review these documents
   carefully, as they describe your rights and restrictions with respect
   to this document.  Code Components extracted from this document must
   include Simplified BSD License text as described in Section 4.e of
   the Trust Legal Provisions and are provided without warranty as
   described in the Simplified BSD License.

Table of Contents

   1.  Conventions and Terminology Used in this Document . . . . . .   3
   2.  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
   3.  Motivation and background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
     3.1.  The Thing Lifecycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
     3.2.  Security building blocks  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6
   4.  Managing Threats and Risks  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
   5.  State of the Art  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  14
     5.1.  IP-based IoT Protocols and Standards  . . . . . . . . . .  14
     5.2.  Existing IP-based Security Protocols and Solutions  . . .  16
     5.3.  IoT Security Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19
     5.4.  Guidelines and IoT Security Regulations . . . . . . . . .  21
   6.  IoT Security Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  22
     6.1.  Profiles Security Profiles  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  24
     6.2.  Security Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  26
     6.3.  Security Model  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28
     6.4.  Security Bootstrapping and Management . . . . . . . . . .  29
     6.5.  Network Security  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  30
     6.6.  Application Security  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  31
   7.  Challenges for a Secure IoT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  33
     7.1.  Constraints and Heterogeneous Communication . . . . . . .  33
       7.1.1.  Tight Resource Constraints  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  33
       7.1.2.  Denial-of-Service Resistance  . . . . . . . . . . . .  34
       7.1.3.  End-to-End Security, protocol translation, and the
               role of middleboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  35
       7.1.4.  New network architectures and paradigm  . . . . . . .  37
     7.2.  Bootstrapping of a Security Domain  . . . . . . . . . . .  37
     7.3.  Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  37
       7.3.1.  End-to-End Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  38
       7.3.2.  Group Membership and Security . . . . . . . . . . . .  38
       7.3.3.  Mobility and IP Network Dynamics  . . . . . . . . . .  39
     7.4.  Software update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  39

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     7.5.  Verifying device behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  40
     7.6.  End-of-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  41
     7.7.  Testing: bug hunting and vulnerabilities  . . . . . . . .  41
     7.8.  Quantum-resistance  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  42
     7.9.  Privacy protection  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  42
     7.10. Data leakage  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  43
     7.11. Trustworthy IoT Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  44
   8.  Conclusions and Next Steps  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  44
   9.  Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  45
   10. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  45
   11. Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  45
   12. Informative References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  45
   Authors' Addresses  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  56

1.  Conventions and Terminology Used in this Document

   The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
   "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this
   document are to be interpreted as described in "Key words for use in
   RFCs to Indicate Requirement Levels" [RFC2119].

2.  Introduction

   The Internet of Things (IoT) denotes the interconnection of highly
   heterogeneous networked entities and networks following a number of
   communication patterns such as: human-to-human (H2H), human-to-thing
   (H2T), thing-to-thing (T2T), or thing-to-things (T2Ts).  The term IoT
   was first coined by the Auto-ID center [AUTO-ID] in 1999.  Since
   then, the development of the underlying concepts has ever increased
   its pace.  Nowadays, the IoT presents a strong focus of research with
   various initiatives working on the (re)design, application, and usage
   of standard Internet technology in the IoT.

   The introduction of IPv6 and web services as fundamental building
   blocks for IoT applications [RFC6568] promises to bring a number of
   basic advantages including: (i) a homogeneous protocol ecosystem that
   allows simple integration with Internet hosts; (ii) simplified
   development of very different appliances; (iii) an unified interface
   for applications, removing the need for application-level proxies.
   Such features greatly simplify the deployment of the envisioned
   scenarios ranging from building automation to production environments
   to personal area networks, in which very different things such as a
   temperature sensor, a luminaire, or an RFID tag might interact with
   each other, with a human carrying a smart phone, or with backend
   services.

   This Internet Draft presents an overview of the security aspects of
   the envisioned all-IP architecture as well as of the lifecycle of an

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   IoT device, a "thing", within this architecture.  In particular, we
   review the most pressing aspects and functionalities that are
   required for a secure all-IP solution.

   With this, this Internet-Draft pursues several goals.  First, we aim
   at presenting a comprehensive view of the interactions and
   relationships between an IoT application and security.  Second, we
   aim at describing challenges for a secure IoT in the specific context
   of the lifecycle of a resource-constrained device.  The final goal of
   this draft is to discuss the security considerations that need to be
   taken into consideration towards a secure IoT.

   The rest of the Internet-Draft is organized as follows.  Section 3
   depicts the lifecycle of a thing and gives general definitions for
   the main security building blocks within the IoT domain.  In
   Section 4, we discuss threats and methodologies for managing risks
   when designing a secure IoT system.  Section 5 reviews existing IP-
   based (security) protocols for the IoT and briefly summarizes
   existing guidelines and regulations in IoT security.  Section 6
   proposes a number of illustrative security profiles describing how
   different applications would require distinct security solutions.
   Section 7 identifies existing challenges for a secure IoT and
   discusses potential solutions.  Section 7 includes final remarks and
   conclusions.

3.  Motivation and background

3.1.  The Thing Lifecycle

   The lifecycle of a thing refers to the operational phases of a thing
   in the context of a given application or use case.  Figure 1 shows
   the generic phases of the lifecycle of a thing.  This generic
   lifecycle is applicable to very different IoT applications and
   scenarios.

   We consider an example, a Building Automation and Control (BAC)
   system, to illustrate the lifecycle and the meaning of these
   different phases.  A BAC system consists of a network of
   interconnected nodes that performs various functions in the domains
   of HVAC (Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning), lighting,
   safety etc.  The nodes vary in functionality and a majority of them
   represent resource constrained devices such as sensors and
   luminaries.  Some devices may also be battery operated or battery-
   less nodes, demanding for a focus on low energy consumption and on
   sleeping devices.  In our example, the life of a thing starts when it
   is manufactured.  Due to the different application areas (i.e., HVAC,
   lighting, safety) nodes are tailored to a specific task.  It is
   therefore unlikely that one single manufacturer will create all nodes

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   in a building.  Hence, interoperability as well as trust
   bootstrapping between nodes of different vendors is important.  The
   thing is later installed and commissioned within a network by an
   installer during the bootstrapping phase.  Specifically, the device
   identity and the secret keys used during normal operation are
   provided to the device during this phase.  Different subcontractors
   may install different IoT devices for different purposes.
   Furthermore, the installation and bootstrapping procedures may not be
   a defined event but may stretch over an extended period of time.
   After being bootstrapped, the device and the system of things are in
   operational mode and execute the functions of the BAC system.  During
   this operational phase, the device is under the control of the system
   owner.  For devices with lifetimes spanning several years, occasional
   maintenance cycles may be required.  During each maintenance phase,
   the software on the device can be upgraded or applications running on
   the device can be reconfigured.  The maintenance tasks can thereby be
   performed either locally or from a backend system by means of an end-
   to-end connection.  Depending on the operational changes of the
   device, it may be required to re-bootstrap at the end of a
   maintenance cycle.  The device continues to loop through the
   operational phase and the eventual maintenance phase until the device
   is decommissioned at the end of its lifecycle.  However, the end-of-
   life of a device does not necessarily mean that it is defective but
   rather denotes a need to replace and upgrade the network to next-
   generation devices in order to provide additional functionality.
   Therefore the device can be removed and re-commissioned to be used in
   a different system under a different owner by starting the lifecycle
   all over again.

    _Manufactured           _SW update          _Decommissioned
   /                       /                   /
   |   _Installed          |   _ Application   |   _Removed &
   |  /                    |  / reconfigured   |  /  replaced
   |  |   _Commissioned    |  |                |  |
   |  |  /                 |  |                |  |   _Reownership &
   |  |  |    _Application |  |   _Application |  |  / recommissioned
   |  |  |   /   running   |  |  / running     |  |  |
   |  |  |   |             |  |  |             |  |  |             \\
   +##+##+###+#############+##+##+#############+##+##+##############>>>
       \/  \______________/ \/  \_____________/ \___/         time //
       /           /         \          \          \
   Bootstrapping  /      Maintenance &   \     Maintenance &
                 /      re-bootstrapping  \   re-bootstrapping
           Operational                Operational

       Figure 1: The lifecycle of a thing in the Internet of Things.

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3.2.  Security building blocks

   Security is a key requirement in the IoT due to several reasons.
   First, an IoT systems enable very specific applications in which
   users are involved.  A broken IoT system means that the privacy and
   safety of the users is endangered, this is key requirement in
   application areas such as critical infrastructure or health care.
   Second, a compromised IoT system means that an attacker altered the
   functionality of the devices of a given manufacturer, this not only
   affects the manufacturer's brand image in a negative way but can also
   leak information that is very valuable for the manufacturer, such as
   proprietary algorithms.  Third, the impact of attacking the IoT goes
   beyond a specific device or isolated systems since compromised IoT
   systems can be misused at scale, e.g., performing a Distribute Denial
   of Service (DDoS) attack that limits the availability of the
   compromised system or even other IT networks.  The fact that many IoT
   systems rely on standard IP protocols allows for easier system
   integration increasing the value of the realized use cases, but this
   also makes standard attacks applicable to a wide number of devices
   deployed in multiple systems.  This results in new requirements
   regarding the implementation of security.

   The term security subsumes a wide range of primitives, protocols, and
   procedures.  In the first place, it includes the basic provision of
   security services including confidentiality, authentication,
   integrity, authorization, non-repudiation, and availability, and some
   augmented services, such as duplicate detection and detection of
   stale packets (timeliness).  These security services can be
   implemented by a combination of cryptographic mechanisms, such as
   block ciphers, hash functions, or signature algorithms, and non-
   cryptographic mechanisms, which implement authorization and other
   security policy enforcement aspects.  For each of the cryptographic
   mechanisms, a secure key management infrastructure is fundamental to
   handling the required cryptographic keys, whereas for security policy
   enforcement, one needs to properly codify authorizations as a
   function of device roles and a security policy engine that implements
   these authorization checks and that can implement changes hereto
   throughout the system's lifecycle.

   In the particular context of the IoT, security must not only focus on
   the required security services, but also pay special attention to how
   these are realized in the overall system and how the security
   functionalities are executed.  To this end, we consider five major
   "building blocks" to analyze and classify security aspects in the
   IoT:

   1.  The IoT security architecture: refers to the system elements
       involved in the management of the security relationships between

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       things and the way these security interactions are handled (e.g.,
       centralized or distributed) during the lifecycle of a thing.  For
       instance, a smart home could rely on a centralized key
       distribution center in charge of managing cryptographic keys,
       devices & users, access control and privacy policies.

   2.  The security model within a smart object: describes the way
       security parameters, key, processes, and applications are managed
       within a smart object.  This includes aspects such as application
       process separation, secure storage of key materials, protection
       of algorithms, etc.  For instance, some smart objects might have
       extremely limited resources and have limited capabilities to
       protect secret keys; in contrast, other devices used in critical
       applications, e.g., a pacemaker, would rely on methods to
       securely protect cryptographic keys and functionality making sure
       that an attacker having physical access to the device cannot
       modify its operation.

   3.  Security bootstrapping: denotes the process by which a thing
       securely joins an IoT system at a given location and point in
       time.  For instance, bootstrapping of a connected camera can
       include the authentication and authorization of a device as well
       as the transfer of security parameters allowing for its trusted
       operation in a given network.

   4.  Network security: describes the mechanisms applied within a
       network to ensure trusted operation of the IoT.  Specifically, it
       prevents attackers from endangering or modifying the expected
       operation of an smart object, it also protects the network itself
       from malicious things.  For instance, network security can
       include a number of mechanisms ranging from data link layer
       security, secure routing, and network layer security.

   5.  Application security: describes mechanisms to allow transfer of
       application data at the transport or upper layers (object
       security).  For instance, assuming an smart object such as an
       environmental sensor connected to a backend system, it can mean
       the exchange of secure blocks of data such as measurements by the
       sensor or a software update.  This data is exchanged end-to-end
       independently of communication pattern, for e.g through proxies
       or other store-and-forward mechanisms.

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               ..........................
               :           +-----------+:
               :       *+*>|Application|*****
               :       *|  +-----------+:   *
               :       *|  +-----------+:   *
               :       *|->| Transport |:   *
               :    * _*|  +-----------+:   *
               :    *|  |  +-----------+:   *
               :    *|  |->|  Network  |:   *
               :    *|  |  +-----------+:   *
               :    *|  |  +-----------+:   *    *** Bootstrapping
               :    *|  +->|     L2    |:   *    ~~~ Transport Security
               :    *|     +-----------+:   *    ''' Object Security
               :+--------+              :   *
               :|Security| Configuration:   *
               :|Service |   Entity     :   *
               :+--------+              :   *
               :........................:   *
                                            *
   .........................                *  .........................
   :+--------+             :                *  :             +--------+:
   :|Security|   Node B    :                *  :   Node A    |Security|:
   :|Service |             :                *  :             |Service |:
   :+--------+             :                *  :             +--------+:
   :    |     +-----------+:                *  :+-----------+     |*   :
   :    |  +->|Application|:                ****|Application|<*+* |*   :
   :    |  |  +-----------+:''''''''''''''''''''+-----------+  |* |*   :
   :    |  |  +-----------+:                   :+-----------+  |* |*   :
   :    |  |->| Transport |~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~| Transport |<-|* |*   :
   :    |__|  +-----------+: ................. :+-----------+  |*_|*   :
   :       |  +-----------+: : +-----------+ : :+-----------+  | *     :
   :       |->|  Network  |: : |  Network  | : :|  Network  |<-|       :
   :       |  +-----------+: : +-----------+ : :+-----------+  |       :
   :       |  +-----------+: : +-----------+ : :+-----------+  |       :
   :       +->|     L2    |: : |     L2    | : :|     L2    |<-+       :
   :          +-----------+: : +-----------+ : :+-----------+          :
   :.......................: :...............: :.......................:
                      Overview of Security Mechanisms.

                                 Figure 2

   We now discuss an exemplary security architecture relying on a
   configuration entity for the management of the system with regard to
   the introduced security aspects (see Figure 2).  Inspired by the
   security framework for routing over low power and lossy network
   [ID-Tsao], we show an example of the security model of a smart object
   and illustrates how different security concepts and the lifecycle
   phases map to the Internet communication stack.

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   In our example, we consider a centralized architecture in which a
   configuration entity stores and manages the identities of the things
   associated with BAC system along with their cryptographic keys.
   During the bootstrapping phase, each thing executes the bootstrapping
   protocol with the configuration entity, thus obtaining the required
   device identities and some operational keying material.  The security
   service on a thing in turn stores the received keying material for
   the network layer and application security mechanisms for secure
   communication.  The criticality of the application requires an
   implementation of cryptographic algorithms that is resistant to side-
   channel attacks and the protection of the proprietary application-
   related algorithms executed in the device.  Things can then securely
   communicate with each other during their operational phase by means
   of the employed network and application security mechanisms.  Within
   the network, communication is protected by the network provider at
   MAC and network layer.  At application layer, the communication
   between any smart object and the application server is protected end-
   to-end, ensuring the forward secrecy of the communication.

4.  Managing Threats and Risks

   This section explores security threats and vulnerabilities in the IoT
   and discusses how to manage risks.

   Security threats have been analyzed in related IP protocols including
   HTTPS [RFC2818], COAP[RFC7252] 6LoWPAN [RFC4919], ANCP [RFC5713], DNS
   security threats [RFC3833], SIP [RFC3261], IPv6 ND [RFC3756], and
   PANA [RFC4016].  Nonetheless, the challenge is about their impacts on
   scenarios of the IoTs.  In this section, we specifically discuss the
   threats that could compromise an individual thing, or network as a
   whole.  Note that these set of threats might go beyond the scope of
   Internet protocols but we gather them here for the sake of
   completeness.  We also note that these threats can be classified
   according to either (i) the thing's lifecycle phases (when does the
   threat occur?) or (ii) the security building blocks (which
   functionality is affected by the threat?).  All these threats are
   summarized in Table 2.

   1.  Cloning of things: During the manufacturing process of a thing,
       an untrusted factory can easily clone the physical
       characteristics, firmware/software, or security configuration of
       the thing.  Deployed things might also be compromised and their
       software reserve engineered allowing for cloning or software
       modifications.  Such a cloned thing may be sold at a cheaper
       price in the market, and yet be able to function normally, as a
       genuine thing.  For example, two cloned devices can still be
       associated and work with each other.  In the worst case scenario,
       a cloned device can be used to control a genuine device or

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       perform an attack.  One should note here, that an untrusted
       factory may also change functionality of the cloned thing,
       resulting in degraded functionality with respect to the genuine
       thing (thereby, inflicting potential damage to the reputation of
       the original thing manufacturer).  Moreover, additional
       functionality can be implemented within the cloned thing, such as
       a backdoor.

   2.  Malicious substitution of things: During the installation of a
       thing, a genuine thing may be substituted with a similar variant
       of lower quality without being detected.  The main motivation may
       be cost savings, where the installation of lower-quality things
       (e.g., non-certified products) may significantly reduce the
       installation and operational costs.  The installers can
       subsequently resell the genuine things in order to gain further
       financial benefits.  Another motivation may be to inflict damage
       to the reputation of a competitor's offerings.

   3.  Eavesdropping attack: During the commissioning of a thing into a
       network, it may be susceptible to eavesdropping, especially if
       operational keying materials, security parameters, or
       configuration settings, are exchanged in clear using a wireless
       medium or if used cryptographic algorithms are not suitable for
       the envisioned lifetime of the device and the system.  After
       obtaining the keying material, the attacker might be able to
       recover the secret keys established between the communicating
       entities (e.g., H2T, T2Ts, or Thing to the backend management
       system), thereby compromising the authenticity and
       confidentiality of the communication channel, as well as the
       authenticity of commands and other traffic exchanged over this
       communication channel.  When the network is in operation, T2T
       communication may be eavesdropped upon if the communication
       channel is not sufficiently protected or in the event of session
       key compromise due to a long period of usage without key renewal
       or updates.

   4.  Man-in-the-middle attack: Both the commissioning phase and
       operational phases may also be vulnerable to man-in-the-middle
       attacks, e.g., when keying material between communicating
       entities are exchanged in the clear and the security of the key
       establishment protocol depends on the tacit assumption that no
       third party is able to eavesdrop during the execution of this
       protocol.  Additionally, device authentication or device
       authorization may be non-trivial, or may need support of a human
       decision process, since things usually do not have a-priori
       knowledge about each other and cannot always be able to
       differentiate friends and foes via completely automated
       mechanisms.  Thus, even if the key establishment protocol

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       provides cryptographic device authentication, this knowledge on
       device identities may still need complementing with a human-
       assisted authorization step (thereby, presenting a weak link and
       offering the potential of man-in-the-middle attacks this way).

   5.  Firmware Replacement attack: When a thing is in operation or
       maintenance phase, its firmware or software may be updated to
       allow for new functionality or new features.  An attacker may be
       able to exploit such a firmware upgrade by replacing the thing's
       software with malicious software, thereby influencing the
       operational behavior of the thing.  For example, an attacker
       could add a piece of malicious code to the firmware that will
       cause it to periodically report the energy usage of the lamp to a
       data repository for analysis.  Similarly, devices whose software
       has not been properly maintained and updated might contain
       vulnerabilities that might be exploited by attackers.

   6.  Extraction of private information: in the ambient environment the
       things (such as sensors, actuators, etc.) are usually physically
       unprotected and could easily be captured by an attacker.  Such an
       attacker may then attempt to extract private information such as
       keys (e.g., device's key, private-key, group key), sensed data
       (e.g., healthcare status of a user), configuration parameters
       (e.g., the WiFi key), or proprietary algorithms (e.g., algorithm
       performing some data analytic task) from this thing.  Compromise
       of a thing's unique key compromises communication channels of
       this particular thing and also compromise all data communicated
       over this channel.

   7.  Routing attack: As highlighted in [ID-Daniel], routing
       information in IoT can be spoofed, altered, or replayed, in order
       to create routing loops, attract/repel network traffic, extend/
       shorten source routes, etc.  Other relevant routing attacks
       include 1) Sinkhole attack (or blackhole attack), where an
       attacker declares himself to have a high-quality route/path to
       the base station, thus allowing him to do manipulate all packets
       passing through it. 2) Selective forwarding, where an attacker
       may selectively forward packets or simply drop a packet. 3)
       Wormhole attack, where an attacker may record packets at one
       location in the network and tunnel them to another location,
       thereby influencing perceived network behavior and potentially
       distorting statistics, thus greatly impacting the functionality
       of routing. 4) Sybil attack, whereby an attacker presents
       multiple identities to other things in the network.

   8.  Privacy threat: The tracking of a thing's location and usage may
       pose a privacy risk to its users.  An attacker can infer
       information based on the information gathered about individual

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       things, thus deducing behavioral patterns of the user of interest
       to him.  Such information can subsequently be sold to interested
       parties for marketing purposes and targeted advertising.

   9.  Denial-of-Service attack: Typically, things have tight memory and
       limited computation, they are thus vulnerable to resource
       exhaustion attack.  Attackers can continuously send requests to
       be processed by specific things so as to deplete their resources.
       This is especially dangerous in the IoTs since an attacker might
       be located in the backend and target resource-constrained devices
       in an Low-Latency Network (LLN).  Additionally, DoS attack can be
       launched by physically jamming the communication channel, thus
       breaking down the T2T communication channel.  Network
       availability can also be disrupted by flooding the network with a
       large number of packets.  On the other hand, things compromised
       by attackers can be used to disrupt the operation of other
       networks or systems by means of a Distributed DoS attack.

   The following table summarizes the above generic security threats and
   the potential point of vulnerabilities at different layers of the
   communication stack.  We also include related RFCs and ongoing
   standardization efforts that include a threat model that might apply
   to the IoTs.

              +------------------+------------------+------------------+
              | Manufacturing    | Installation/    | Operation        |
              |                  | Commissioning    |                  |
 +------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
 |Thing's     | Device Cloning   |Substitution      |Privacy threat    |
 |Model       |                  |ACE-OAuth(draft)  |Extraction of     |
 |            |                  |                  |private inform.   |
 +------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
 |Application |                  |RFC2818, RFC7252  |RFC2818, Firmware |
 |Layer       |                  |OSCOAP(draft)     |replacement       |
 +------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
 |Transport   |                  | Eavesdropping &  |Eavesdropping     |
 |Layer       |                  | Man-in-the-middle|Man-in-the-middle |
 +------------+------------------| attack, RFC7925  |------------------+
 |Network     |                  | RFC4919, RFC5713 |RFC4919,DoS attack|
 |Layer       |                  | RFC3833, RFC3756 |Routing attack    |
 |            |                  |                  |RFC3833           |
 +------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
 |Physical    |                  |                  |DoS attack        |
 |Layer       |                  |                  |                  |
 +-------------------------------+------------------+------------------+

   Figure 3: Classification of threats according to the lifecycle phases
                       and security building blocks.

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   Dealing with above threats and finding suitable security mitigations
   is challenging: there are very sophisticated threats that a very
   powerful attacker could use; also, new threats and exploits appear in
   a daily basis.  Therefore, the existence of proper secure product
   creation processes that allow managing and minimizing risks during
   the lifecycle of the IoT devices is at least as important as being
   aware of the threats.  A non-exhaustive list of relevant processes
   include:

   1.  A Business Impact Analysis (BIA) assesses the consequences of
       loss of basic security attributes, namely, confidentiality,
       integrity and availability in an IoT system.  These consequences
       might include impact on data lost, sales lost, increased
       expenses, regulatory fines, customer dissatisfaction, etc.
       Performing a business impact analysis allow determining the
       business relevance of having a proper security design placing
       security in the focus.

   2.  A Risk Assessment (RA) analyzes security threats to the IoT
       system, considering their likelihood and impact, and deriving for
       each of them a risk level.  Risks classified as moderate or high
       must be mitigated, i.e., security architecture should be able to
       deal with that threat bringing the risk to a low level.  Note
       that threats are usually classified according to their goal:
       confidentiality, integrity, and availability.  For instance, a
       specific threat to recover a symmetric-key used in the system
       relates to confidentiality.

   3.  A privacy impact assessment (PIA) aims at assessing Personal
       Identifiable Information (PII) that is collected, processed, or
       used in the IoT system.  By doing so, the goals is to fulfill
       applicable legal requirements, determine risks and effects of the
       manipulation of PII, and evaluate proposed protections.

   4.  Procedures for incident reporting and mitigation refer to the
       methodologies that allow becoming aware of any security issues
       that affect an IoT system.  Furthermore, this includes steps
       towards the actual deployment of patches that mitigate the
       identified vulnerabilities.

   BIA, RA, and PIA are usually to be realized during the creation of a
   new IoT system, introduction of new technologies in the IoT system,
   or deployment of significant system upgrades.  In general, it is
   recommended to re-assess them on a regular basis taking into account
   new use cases or threats.

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5.  State of the Art

   This section is organized as follows.  Section Section 5.1 summarizes
   state of the art on IP-based systems, within IETF and in other
   standardization bodies.  Section Section 5.2 summarizes state of the
   art on IP-based security protocols and their usage.
   Section Section 5.3 discusses guidelines for securing the IoT as
   proposed by other bodies.  Section Section 5.4 analyzes status of
   other relevant standards, in particular, those by NIST regarding IoT
   and IoT security.

5.1.  IP-based IoT Protocols and Standards

   Nowadays, there exists a multitude of control protocols for the IoT.
   For BAC systems, the ZigBee standard [ZB], BACNet [BACNET], or DALI
   [DALI] play key roles.  Recent trends, however, focus on an all-IP
   approach for system control.

   In this setting, a number of IETF working groups are designing new
   protocols for resource constrained networks of smart things.  The
   6LoWPAN working group [WG-6LoWPAN] concentrates on the definition of
   methods and protocols for the efficient transmission and adaptation
   of IPv6 packets over IEEE 802.15.4 networks [RFC4944].

   The CoRE working group [WG-CoRE] provides a framework for resource-
   oriented applications intended to run on constrained IP network
   (6LoWPAN).  One of its main tasks is the definition of a lightweight
   version of the HTTP protocol, the Constrained Application Protocol
   (CoAP) [RFC7252], that runs over UDP and enables efficient
   application-level communication for things.

   In many smart object networks, the smart objects are dispersed and
   have intermittent reachability either because of network outages or
   because they sleep during their operational phase to save energy.  In
   such scenarios, direct discovery of resources hosted on the
   constrained server might not be possible.  To overcome this barrier,
   the CoRE working group is specifying the concept of a Resource
   Directory (RD) [ID-rd].  The Resource Directory hosts descriptions of
   resources which are located on other nodes.  These resource
   descriptions are specified as CoRE link format [RFC6690] URIs.

   While CoAP defines a standard communication protocol, a format for
   representing sensor measurements and parameters over CoAP is
   required.  The Sensor Measurement Lists (SenML) [ID-senml] is a
   specification that is currently being written to define media types
   for simple sensor measurements and parameters.  It has a minimalistic
   design so that constrained devices with limited computational

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   capabilities can easily encode their measurements and, at the same
   time, servers can efficiently collect large number of measurements.

   In many IoT deployments, the resource-constrained smart objects are
   connected to the Internet via a gateway that is directly reachable.
   For example, an IEEE 802.11 Access Point (AP) typically connects the
   client devices to the Internet over just one wireless hop.  However,
   some deployments of smart object networks require routing between the
   smart objects themselves.  The IETF has therefore defined the IPv6
   Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) [RFC6550].
   RPL provides support for multipoint-to-point traffic from resource-
   constrained smart objects towards a more resourceful central control
   point, as well as point-to-multipoint traffic in the reverse
   direction.  It also supports point-to-point traffic between the
   resource-constrained devices.  A set of routing metrics and
   constraints for path calculation in RPL are also specified [RFC6551].

   In addition to defining a routing protocol, the IETF has also
   specified how IPv6 packets can be transmitted over various link layer
   protocols that are commonly employed for resource-constrained smart
   object networks.  There is also ongoing work to specify IPv6
   connectivity for a Non-Broadcast Multi-Access (NBMA) mesh network
   that is formed by IEEE 802.15.4 TimeSlotted Channel Hopping (TSCH}
   links [ID-6tisch].  Other link layer protocols for which IETF has
   specified or is currently specifying IPv6 support include Bluetooth
   [RFC7668], Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) Ultra
   Low Energy (ULE) air interface [ID-6lodect], and Near Field
   Communication (NFC) [ID-6lonfc].

   JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) is a lightweight text
   representation format for structured data [RFC7158].  It is often
   used for transmitting serialized structured data over the network.
   IETF has defined specifications for encoding public keys, signed
   content, and claims to be transferred between two parties as JSON
   objects.  They are referred to as JSON Web Keys (JWK) [RFC7517], JSON
   Web Signatures (JWS) [RFC7515] and JSON Web Token (JWT) [RFC7519].

   An alternative to JSON, Concise Binary Object Representation (CBOR)
   [RFC7049] is a concise binary data format that is used for
   serialization of structured data.  It is designed for extremely
   resource-constrained nodes and therefore it aims to provide a fairly
   small message size with minimal implementation code, and
   extensibility without the need for version negotiation.  There is
   ongoing work to specify CBOR Object Signing and Encryption (COSE)
   [ID-cose], which would provide services similar to JWS and JWT.

   The Light-Weight Implementation Guidance (LWIG) working group
   [WG-LWIG] is collecting experiences from implementers of IP stacks in

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   constrained devices.  The working group has already produced
   documents such as RFC7815 [RFC7815] which defines how a minimal
   Internet Key Exchange Version 2 (IKEv2) initiator can be implemented.

   The Thing-2-Thing Research Group (T2TRG) [RG-T2TRG] is investigating
   the remaining research issues that need to be addressed in order to
   quickly turn the vision of IoT into a reality where resource-
   constrained nodes can communicate with each other and with other more
   capable nodes on the Internet.

   Additionally industry alliances and other standardization bodies are
   creating constrained IP protocol stacks based on the IETF work.  Some
   important examples of this include:

   1.  Thread [Thread]: Specifies the Thread protocol that is intended
       for a variety of IoT devices.  It is an IPv6-based network
       protocol that runs over IEEE 802.15.4.

   2.  Industrial Internet Consortium [IIoT]: The consortium defines
       reference architectures and security frameworks for development,
       adoption and widespread use of Industrial Internet technologies
       based on existing IETF standards.

   3.  Internet Protocol for Smart Objects IPSO [IPSO]: The alliance
       specifies a common object model that would enable application
       software any device to interoperate with other conforming
       devices.

   4.  OneM2M [OneM2M]: The standards body defines technical and API
       specifications for IoT devices.  It aims to create a service
       layer that can run on any IoT device hardware and software.

   5.  Open Connectivity Foundation (OCF) [OCF]: The foundation develops
       standards and certifications primarily for IoT devices that use
       Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) as the application layer
       protocol.

   6.  Fairhair Alliance [Fairhair]: Specifies a middle-ware for IoT
       based Building Automation and Lighting System that can
       interoperate with different application standards for the
       professional domain.

5.2.  Existing IP-based Security Protocols and Solutions

   In the context of the IP-based IoT solutions, consideration of TCP/IP
   security protocols is important.  There are a wide range of
   specialized as well as general-purpose key exchange and security
   solutions for the Internet domain such as IKEv2/IPsec [RFC7296], TLS

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   [RFC5246], DTLS [RFC6347], HIP [RFC7401], PANA [RFC5191], and EAP
   [RFC3748].

   There is ongoing work to define an authorization and access-control
   framework for resource-constrained nodes.  The Authentication and
   Authorization for Constrained Environments (ACE) [WG-ACE] working
   group is defining a solution to allow only authorized access to
   resources that are hosted on a smart object server and are identified
   by a URI.  The current proposal [ID-aceoauth] is based on the OAuth
   2.0 framework [RFC6749].

   The CoAP base specification [RFC7252] provides a description of how
   DTLS can be used for securing CoAP.  It proposes three different
   modes for using DTLS: the PreSharedKey mode, where nodes have pre-
   provisioned keys for initiating a DTLS session with another node,
   RawPublicKey mode, where nodes have asymmetric-key pairs but no
   certificates to verify the ownership, and Certificate mode, where
   public keys are certified by a certification authority.  An IoT
   implementation profile [RFC7925] is defined for TLS version 1.2 and
   DTLS version 1.2 that offers communications security for resource-
   constrained nodes.

   There is also work on Object Security based CoAP protection mechanism
   being defined in OSCOAP [ID-OSCOAP].

   Migault et al.{ID-dietesp} are working on a compressed version of
   IPsec so that it can easily be used by resource-constrained IoT
   devices.  They rely on the Internet Key Exchange Protocol version 2
   (IKEv2) for negotiating the compression format.

   Figure 3 depicts the relationships between the discussed protocols in
   the context of the security terminology introduced in Section 3.

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             ..........................
             :           +-----------+:
             :       *+*>|Application|*****     *** Bootstrapping
             :       *|  +-----------+:   *     ### Transport Security
             :       *|  +-----------+:   *     === Network security
             :       *|->| Transport |:   *     ... Object security
             :    * _*|  +-----------+:   *
             :    *|  |  +-----------+:   *
             :    *|  |->|  Network  |:   *--> -PANA/EAP
             :    *|  |  +-----------+:   *    -HIP
             :    *|  |  +-----------+:   *
             :    *|  +->|     L2    |:   *     ## DTLS
             :    *|     +-----------+:   *     .. OSCOAP
             :+--------+              :   *
             :|Security| Configuration:   *     [] HIP,IKEv2
             :|Service |   Entity     :   *     [] ESP/AH
             :+--------+              :   *
             :........................:   *
                                          *
 .........................                *    .........................
 :+--------+             :                *    :             +--------+:
 :|Security|   Node B    :    Secure      *    :   Node A    |Security|:
 :|Service |             :    routing     *    :             |Service |:
 :+--------+             :   framework    *    :             +--------+:
 :    |     +-----------+:        |       **** :+-----------+     |*   :
 :    |  +->|Application|:........|............:|Application|<*+* |*   :
 :    |  |  +----##-----+:        |            :+----##-----+  |* |*   :
 :    |  |  +----##-----+:        |            :+----##-----+  |* |*   :
 :    |  |->| Transport |#########|#############| Transport |<-|* |*   :
 :    |__|  +----[]-----+:  ......|..........  :+----[]-----+  |*_|*   :
 :       |  +====[]=====+=====+===========+=====+====[]=====+  | *     :
 :       |->|| Network  |:  : |  Network  | :  :|  Network ||<-|       :
 :       |  +|----------+:  : +-----------+ :  :+----------|+  |       :
 :       |  +|----------+:  : +-----------+ :  :+----------|+  |       :
 :       +->||    L2    |:  : |     L2    | :  :|     L2   ||<-+       :
 :          +===========+=====+===========+=====+===========+          :
 :.......................:  :...............:  :.......................:
            Relationships between IP-based security protocols.

                                 Figure 4

   The Internet Key Exchange (IKEv2)/IPsec and the Host Identity
   protocol (HIP) reside at or above the network layer in the OSI model.
   Both protocols are able to perform an authenticated key exchange and
   set up the IPsec transforms for secure payload delivery.  Currently,
   there are also ongoing efforts to create a HIP variant coined Diet
   HIP [ID-HIP] that takes lossy low-power networks into account at the
   authentication and key exchange level.

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   Transport Layer Security (TLS) and its datagram-oriented variant DTLS
   secure transport-layer connections.  TLS provides security for TCP
   and requires a reliable transport, while DTLS secures and uses
   datagram-oriented protocols such as UDP.  Both protocols are
   intentionally kept similar and share the same ideology and cipher
   suites.

   The Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) is an authentication
   framework supporting multiple authentication methods.  EAP runs
   directly over the data link layer and, thus, does not require the
   deployment of IP.  It supports duplicate detection and
   retransmission, but does not allow for packet fragmentation.  The
   Protocol for Carrying Authentication for Network Access (PANA) is a
   network-layer transport for EAP that enables network access
   authentication between clients and the network infrastructure.  In
   EAP terms, PANA is a UDP-based EAP lower layer that runs between the
   EAP peer and the EAP authenticator.

   In addition, there is also new activities in IETF and W3C to define
   security protocols better tailored to IoT or for specific deployment
   situations.

5.3.  IoT Security Guidelines

   Recent large scale Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks on the Internet
   Infrastructure from compromised IoT devices has prompted many
   different standards bodies and consortia to provide guidelines for
   developers and the Internet community at large to build secure IoT
   devices and services.  A subset of the different guidelines and
   ongoing projects are as follows:

   1.   GSMA IoT security guidelines [GSMAsecurity]: GSMA has published
        a set of security guidelines for the benefit of new IoT product
        and service providers.  The guideline are aimed at device
        manufacturers, service providers, developers and network
        operators.  An enterprise can complete an IoT Security Self-
        Assessment to demonstrate that its products and services are
        aligned with the security guidelines of the GSMA.

   2.   BITAG Internet of Things (IoT) Security and Privacy
        Recommendations [BITAG]: Broadband Internet Technical Advisory
        Group (BITAG) has also published recommendations for ensuring
        security and privacy of IoT device users.  BITAG observes that
        many IoT devices are shipped from the factory with software that
        is already outdated and vulnerable.  The report also states that
        many devices with vulnerabilities will not be fixed either
        because the manufacturer does not provide updates or because the
        user does not apply them.  The recommendations include that IoT

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        devices should function without cloud and Internet connectivity,
        and that all IoT devices should have methods for automatic
        secure software updates.

   3.   CSA New Security Guidance for Early Adopters of the IoT [CSA]:
        The Cloud Security Alliance (CSA) recommendations for early
        adopters of IoT encourages enterprises to implement security at
        different layers of the protocol stack.  It also recommends
        implementation of an authentication/authorization framework for
        IoT deployments.  A complete list of recommendations is
        available in the report [CSA].

   4.   U.S.  Department of Homeland Security [DHS]: DHS has put forth
        six strategic principles that would enable IoT developers,
        manufacturers, service providers and consumers to maintain
        security as they develop, manufacture, implement or use network-
        connected IoT devices.

   5.   NIST [NIST-Guide]: The NIST special publication urges enterprise
        and US federal agencies to address security throughout the
        systems engineering process.  The publication builds upon the
        ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288 standard and augments each process in the
        system lifecyle with security enhancements.

   6.   NIST [nist_lightweight_project]: NIST is running a project on
        lightweight cryptography with the purpose of: (i) identifying
        application areas for which standard cryptographic algorithms
        are too heavy, classifying them according to some application
        profiles to be determined; (ii) determining limitations in those
        existing cryptographic standards; and (iii) standardizing
        lightweight algorithms that can be used in specific application
        profiles.

   7.   OWASP [OWASP]: Open Web Application Security Project (OWASP)
        provides security guidance for IoT manufactures, developers and
        consumers.  OWASP also includes guidelines for those who intend
        to test and analyze IoT devices and applications.

   8.   IoT Security foundation [IoTSecFoundation]: IoT security
        foundation has published a document that enlists various
        considerations that need to be taken into account when
        developing IoT applications.  For example, the document states
        that IoT device could use hardware-root of trust to ensure that
        only authorized software runs on the device.

   9.   NHTSA [NHTSA]: The US National Highway Traffic Safety
        Administration provides a set of non-binding guidance to the
        automotive industry for improving the cyber security of

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        vehicles.  While some of the guidelines are general, the
        document provides specific recommendations for the automotive
        industry such as how various automotive manufacturer can share
        cyber security vulnerabilities discovered.

   10.  BCP for IoT devices [ID-Moore]: This Internet draft provides a
        list of minimum requirements that vendors of Internet of Things
        (IoT) devices should to take into account while developing
        applications, services and firmware updates in order to reduce
        the frequency and severity of security incidents that arise from
        compromised IoT devices.

   11.  ENISA [ENISA_ICS]: The European Union Agency for Network and
        Information Security published a document on communication
        network dependencies for ICS/SCADA systems in which security
        vulnerabilities, guidelines and general recommendations are
        summarized.

   Other guideline and recommendation documents may exist or may later
   be published.  This list should be considered non-exhaustive.

5.4.  Guidelines and IoT Security Regulations

   Despise the need for security in the Internet is nothing new and
   multiple guidelines exist, the fact is that many IoT devices and
   systems are not fully secure.  There are multiple reasons for this.
   For instance, some manufactures focus on delivering a product without
   paying enough attention to the delivered security level, lack of
   expertise or budget.  This, however, poses a severe threat when such
   devices are deployed.  The vast amount of devices and their inherent
   mobile nature also implies that an initially secure system can become
   insecure if a compromised device gains access to the system at some
   point of time.  Even if all devices in a given environment are
   secure, it does not prevent external (passive) attacks originating
   due to insecure devices.

   Recently [FCC] the FCC has stated the need for higher regulation for
   IoT systems.  In fact this might be a missing component, at least in
   Federal Information Systems (FIS).  Today, security in US FIS is
   regulated according to Federal Information Security Management Act
   (FISMA).  From this law, NIST derived a number of documents to
   establish how to categorize FIS and determine minimum security
   requirements (FIPS-PUB-199 and FIPS-PUB-200).  Minimum security
   requirements for FIS are specified in NIST SP 800-53r4.  However, it
   is very likely that existing regulations do not take into account the
   specific challenges of IoT devices and networks.

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   Even if such a regulation is put in place, the question is how such a
   regulation can be applied in practice to non-federal deployments,
   such as industrial, homes, offices, or smart cites.  Each of them
   exhibits unique features, involves very diverse types of users, has
   different operational requirements, and combines IoT devices from
   multiple manufacturers.  Therefore future regulations should consider
   such diverse deployment scenarios.

6.  IoT Security Profiles

   There is a wide range of IoT applications including building
   automation systems, healthcare, smart cities, logistics, etc.  For
   each of these applications, properties such as device capability,
   network infrastructure, or available security services can be
   completely different.  Furthermore, each of those applications is
   featured by a different number of actors deployed in very different
   environments and with very different purposes.

   Consequently, when a Business Impact Analysis or Risk Assessment is
   performed, not only the types of threats will be different, but also
   their likelihood and potential impact.  This determines that
   different applications tend to require different or complementary
   types of security mechanisms mitigating the identified risks.

   For example, IoT applications may have different needs regarding
   authentication and confidentiality.  While some application might not
   require any confidentiality at all, others might require strong end-
   to-end confidentiality.  In terms of secure bootstrapping of keys,
   some applications might assume the existence and online availability
   of a central key-distribution-center (KDC) within the network to
   distribute and manage keys; while other applications cannot rely on
   such a central party or on their availability.

   This section describes some exemplary security profiles fitting the
   security needs of applications with the same characteristics and
   requirements.  This approach is similar to that in the security
   profiles in [nist_lightweight_project].  Such security profiles can
   help to (i) guide the design process of different application types
   by identifying open gaps; (ii) allow for later interoperability; and
   (iii) prevent possible security misconfiguration.  Each security
   profile is identified by:

   1.  a short description,

   2.  an exemplary application that might use/require such a security
       profile,

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   3.  the security requirements for each of the above security aspects
       according to our classification in Section 3.2.

   These security profiles can serve to guide the standardization
   process, since these explicitly describe the basic functionalities
   and protocols required to get different use cases up and running.
   They can allow for later interoperability since different
   manufacturers can describe the implemented security profile in their
   products.  Finally, the security profiles can avoid possible security
   misconfiguration, since each security profile can be bound to a
   different application domain so that security protocols are clearly
   defined and under which circumstances they are applied.

   We compare the security capabilities in each of the security profiles
   according to security building blocks introduced Section 3.2, namely:

   1.  Security architecture,

   2.  Security model,

   3.  Security bootstrapping,

   4.  Network security, and

   5.  Application security.

   IMPORTANT: Note that each of these exemplary profiles aims at
   summarizing the required security requirements for different
   exemplary application areas and at providing a set of initial
   security features.  In other words, these profiles reflect the need
   for different security configurations, depending on the threat and
   trust models of the underlying applications.  In this sense, this
   section does not provide an overview of existing protocols as done in
   previous sections, but it rather explicitly describes what should be
   in place to ensure secure system operation.  Observe also that this
   list of security profiles is not exhaustive and that it should be
   considered just as an example not related to existing legal
   regulations for any existing application.

   The remainder of this section is organized as follows.
   Section Section 6.1 first describes four generic security profiles
   and discuss how different applications of IP networks, e.g., 6LoWPAN/
   CoAP networks, involve different security needs.  The following five
   subsections summarize the expected security features or capabilities
   for each the security profile with regards to "Security
   Architecture", "Security Model", "Security Bootstrapping", "Network
   Security", and "Application Security".

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6.1.  Profiles Security Profiles

   We consider four generic security profiles as summarized in the table
   below:

             +---------------------------------------------------------+
             | Exemplary       |                                       |
             | Application     |          Description                  |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_1 |Home usage       |Enables operation between home things  |
  |          |                 |without interaction with central device|
  +----------+-----------------+---------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_2 |Managed Home     |Enables operation between home things. |
  |          | usage           |Interaction with a central and local   |
  |          |                 |device is possible                     |
  +----------+-----------------+---------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_3 |Industrial usage |Enables operation between things.      |
  |          |                 |Relies on central (local or backend)   |
  |          |                 |device for security                    |
  +----------+-----------------+---------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_4 |Advanced         |Enables ad-hoc operation between things|
  |          |Industrial usage |and relies on central device or        |
  |          |                 |on a collection of control devices     |
  +----------+-----------------+---------------------------------------+

            Figure 5: Security profiles and application areas.

   The classification in the table considers different potential
   applications in which security mechanism are chosen according to the
   operational features (network size, existence of a central device,
   connectivity to the Internet, importance of the exchanged
   information, etc.) and threat model (what are the assets that an
   attacker looks for).  As already pointed out, this set of scenarios
   is just exemplary and they should be further discussed based on a
   broader consensus.

   The security suite (SecProf_1) is catered for environments in which
   IP protocols (e.g., 6LoWPAN/CoAP) can be used to enable communication
   between things in an ad-hoc manner and the security requirements are
   minimal.  An example, is a home application in which two devices
   should exchange information and no further connection with other
   devices (local or with a backend) is required.  In this scenario,
   value of the exchanged information is low and usually happens in a
   confined room, thus, it is possible to have a short period of time
   during which initial secrets can be exchanged in the clear.  Due to
   this fact, there is no requirement to enable devices from different
   manufacturers to inter operate in a secure way (keys are just
   exchanged).  The expected network size of applications using this

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   profile is expected to be small such that the provision of network
   security, e.g., secure routing, is of low importance.

   The next security suite (SecProf_2) represents an evolution of
   SecProf_1 in which, e.g., home devices, can be managed.  A first
   possibility for the securing domain management refers to the creation
   of a centrally managed security domain without any connectivity to
   the Internet.  The central device used for management can serve as,
   e.g., a key distribution center including policies for key update,
   storage, etc.  The presence of a central device can help in the
   management of larger networks.  Network security becomes more
   relevant in this scenario since the IP network (e.g., 6LoWPAN/CoAP
   network) can be prone to Denial of Service attacks (e.g., flooding if
   L2 is not protected) or routing attacks.  Similarly, the network of
   devices could also be the source of a DDoS attack and a central
   device connecting to the Internet can block traffic of ongoing
   attacks.

   SecProf_3 considers that a central device is always required for
   managing the system.  Example applications of this profile include
   building control and automation, sensor networks for industrial use,
   environmental monitoring, etc.  As before, the manager can be located
   in the same network (e.g., 6LoWPAN/CoAP network) and handle key
   management.  In this case, the first association of devices to the
   network is required to be done in a secure way, i.e., requiring
   authentication and authorization.  This step can involve the secure
   transmission of keying materials used for network security at
   different layers.  The information exchanged in the network is
   considered to be valuable and it should be protected in the sense of
   pairwise links.  Commands should be secured and broadcast should be
   secured with entity authentication [RFC7390].  Network should be
   protected from routing attacks.  A further extension to this use case
   is to allow for remote management.  A "backend manager" is in charge
   of securely managing SW or information exchanged or collected within
   the network, e.g., a 6LoWPAN/CoAP network.  This requires connection
   of devices to the Internet over a 6LBR involving a number of new
   threats that were not present before.  A list of potential attacks
   include: resource-exhaustion attacks from the Internet; amplification
   attacks; trust issues related a HTTP-CoAP proxy [ID-proHTTPCoAP],
   etc.  This use case requires protecting the communication from a
   device in the backend to a device in the IP network, e.g., a 6LoWPAN/
   CoAP network, end-to-end.  This use case also requires measures to
   provide the 6LBR with the capability of dropping fake requests coming
   from the Internet.  This becomes especially challenging when the 6LBR
   is not trusted and access to the exchanged information is limited;
   and even more in the case of a HTTP-CoAP proxy since protocol
   translation is required.  This use case should take care of
   protecting information accessed from the backend due to privacy

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   issues (e.g., information such as type of devices, location, usage,
   type and amount of exchanged information, or mobility patterns can be
   gathered at the backend threatening the privacy sphere of users) so
   that only required information is disclosed.

   The last security suite (SecProf_4) essentially represents
   interoperability of all the security profiles defined previously.  It
   considers applications with some additional requirements regarding
   operation such as: (i) ad-hoc establishment of security relationships
   between things (potentially from different manufacturers) in non-
   secure environments or (ii) dynamic roaming of things between
   different IP network security domains.  Such operational requirements
   pose additional security requirements, e.g., in addition to secure
   bootstrapping of a device within an IP, e.g., 6LowPan/CoAP, security
   domain and the secure transfer of network operational key, there is a
   need to enable inter-domains secure communication to facilitate data
   sharing.  In this scenario, there is also a higher pressure to ensure
   that an attacker cannot compromise deployed devices and extract or
   modify any type of private data such as cryptographic keys, data, or
   proprietary algorithms.

6.2.  Security Architecture

   Most things might be required to support both centralized and
   distributed operation patterns.  Distributed thing-to-thing
   communication might happen on demand, for instance, when two things
   form an ad-hoc security domain to cooperatively fulfill a certain
   task.  Likewise, nodes may communicate with a backend service located
   in the Internet without a central security manager.  The same nodes
   may also be part of a centralized architecture with a dedicated node
   being responsible for the security management for group communication
   between things in the IoT domain.  In today's IoT, most common
   architectures are fully centralized in the sense that all the
   security relationships within a segment are handled by a central
   party.  In the ZigBee standard, this entity is the trust center.
   Current proposals for 6LoWPAN/CoRE identify the 6LoWPAN Border Router
   (6LBR) as such a device.

   A centralized architecture allows for central management of devices
   and keying materials as well as for the backup of cryptographic keys.
   However, it also imposes some limitations.  First, it represents a
   single point of failure.  This is a major drawback, e.g., when key
   agreement between two devices requires online connectivity to the
   central node.  Second, it limits the possibility to create ad-hoc
   security domains without dedicated security infrastructure.  Third,
   it codifies a more static world view, where device roles are cast in
   stone, rather than a more dynamic world view that recognizes that

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   networks and devices, and their roles and ownership, may change over
   time (e.g., due to device replacement and hand-over of control).

   Decentralized architectures, on the other hand, allow creating ad-hoc
   security domains that might not require a single online management
   entity and are operative in a much more stand-alone manner.  The ad-
   hoc security domains can be added to a centralized architecture at a
   later point in time, allowing for central or remote management.

   The choice of security architecture has many implications regarding
   key management, access control, or security scope.  A distributed (or
   ad-hoc) architecture means that security relationships between things
   are setup on the fly between a number of objects and kept in a
   decentralized fashion, i.e., there is no central authority that can
   interfere with the system operation.  A locally centralized security
   architecture means that a central device, e.g., the 6LBR, handles the
   keys for all the devices in the security domain.  Alternatively, a
   central security architecture could also refer to the fact that smart
   objects are managed from the backend.  It can also refer to a public-
   key infrastructure used to manage identities and digital certificates
   associated to the different devices.

   The security architecture for the different security profiles is
   classified as follows.

             +---------------------------------------------------------+
             |                 Description                             |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_1 |                Distributed                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_2 |     Distributed able to move centralized (local)        |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_3 |         Centralized (local &/or backend)                |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_4 |      Distributed & centralized (local &/or backend)     |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+

     Figure 6: Security architectures in different security profiles.

   In "SecProf_1", management mechanisms for the distributed assignment
   and management of keying materials is required.  Since this is a very
   simple use case, access control to the formed security domain can be
   enabled by means of a common secret known to all devices.  In the
   next security suite (SecProf_2), a central device can assume key
   management responsibilities and handle the access to the network.
   The last two security suites (SecProf_3 and SecProf_4) further allow
   for the management of devices or some operational keying materials
   from the backend.  Identity and public-key management can be realized

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   by means of a public-key infrastructure or a more decentralized
   solution based on block-chain.

6.3.  Security Model

   While some applications might involve very resource-constrained
   things such as, e.g., a humidity, pollution sensor, other
   applications might target more powerful devices aimed at more exposed
   applications.  Security parameters such as keying materials,
   certificates, etc. must be protected in the thing, for example by
   means of tamper-resistant hardware.  Keys may be shared across a
   thing's networking stack to provide authenticity and confidentiality
   in each networking layer.  This would minimize the number of key
   establishment/agreement handshake and incurs less overhead for
   constrained thing.  While more advanced applications may require key
   separation at different networking layers, and possibly process
   separation and sandboxing to isolate one application from another.
   In this sense, this section reflects the fact that different
   applications require different sets of security mechanisms.  A very
   important requirement refers to the protection of application related
   parameters, data, and algorithms running on a smart object that
   should be protected from extraction or manipulation.

             +---------------------------------------------------------+
             |Description                                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_1 |No tamper resistant                                      |
  |          |Sharing keys between layers                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_2 |No tamper resistant                                      |
  |          |Sharing keys between layers                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_3 |Tamper resistant                                         |
  |          |Key and process separation                               |
  |          |Data and algorithm protection from manipulation/copy     |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_4 |(no) Tamper resistant                                    |
  |          |Sharing keys between layers/Key and process separation   |
  |          |Sandbox                                                  |
  |          |Data and algorithm protection from manipulation/copy     |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+

      Figure 7: Thing security models in different security profiles.

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6.4.  Security Bootstrapping and Management

   Bootstrapping refers to the process by which a thing initiates its
   life within a security domain and includes the initialization of
   secure and/or authentic parameters bound to the thing and at least
   one other device in the network.  Here, different mechanisms may be
   used to achieve confidentiality and/or authenticity of these
   parameters, depending on deployment scenario assumptions and the
   communication channel(s) used for passing these parameters.  The
   simplest mechanism for initial set-up of secure and authentic
   parameters is via communication in the clear using a physical
   interface (USB, wire, chip contact, etc.).  Here, one commonly
   assumes this communication channel is secure, since eavesdropping
   and/or manipulation of this interface would generally require access
   to the physical medium and, thereby, to one or both of the devices
   themselves.  This mechanism was used with the so-called original
   "resurrecting duckling" model, as introduced in [PROC-Stajano-99].
   This technique may also be used securely in wireless, rather than
   wired, set-ups, if the prospect of eavesdropping and/or manipulating
   this channel are dim (a so-called "location-limited" channel
   [PROC-Smetters-04][PROC-Smetters-02]).  Examples hereof include the
   communication of secret keys in the clear using near field
   communication (NFC) - where the physical channel is purported to have
   very limited range (roughly 10cm), thereby thwarting eavesdropping by
   far-away adversarial devices, and in-the-clear communication during a
   small time window (triggered by, e.g., a button-push) - where
   eavesdropping is presumed absent during this small time window.  With
   the use of public-key based techniques, assumptions on the
   communication channel can be relaxed even further, since then the
   cryptographic technique itself provides for confidentiality of the
   channel set-up and the location-limited channel - or use of
   certificates - rules out man-in-the-middle attacks, thereby providing
   authenticity [PROC-Smetters-02].  The same result can be obtained
   using password-based public-key protocols [SPEKE], where authenticity
   depends on the (weak) password not being guessed during execution of
   the protocol.

   It should be noted that while most of these techniques realize a
   secure and authentic channel for passing parameters, these generally
   do not provide for explicit authorization.  As an example, with use
   of certificate-based public-key based techniques, one may obtain hard
   evidence on whom one shares secret and/or authentic parameters with,
   but this does not answer the question as to whether one wishes to
   share this information at all with this specifically identified
   device (the latter usually involves a human-decision element).  Thus,
   the bootstrapping mechanisms above should generally be complemented
   by mechanisms that regulate (security policies for) authorization.
   Furthermore, the type of bootstrapping is very related to the

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   required type of security architecture.  Distributed bootstrapping
   means that a pair of devices can setup a security relationship on the
   fly, without interaction with a central device elsewhere within the
   system.  In many cases, it is handy to have a distributed
   bootstrapping protocol based on existing security protocols (e.g.,
   DTLS in CoAP) required for other purposes: this reduces the amount of
   required software.  A centralized bootstrapping protocol is one in
   which a central device manages the security relationships within a
   network.  This can happen locally, e.g., handled by the 6LBR, or
   remotely, e.g., from a server connected via the Internet.  The
   security bootstrapping for the different security profiles is as
   follows.

             +---------------------------------------------------------+
             |Description                                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_1 |* Distributed, (e.g., Resurrecting duckling)             |
  |          |* First key distribution happens in the clear            |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_2 |* Distributed, (e.g., Resurrecting duckling )            |
  |          |* Centralized (local), 6LBR acts as KDC                  |
  |          |* First key distribution occurs in the clear, if the KDC |
  |          |  is available, the KDC can manage network access        |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_3 |* 6LBR acts as KDC. It handles node joining, provides    |
  |          |  them with keying material from L2 to application layers|
  |          |* Bootstrapping occurs in a secure way - either in secure|
  |          |  environment or the security mechanisms ensure that     |
  |          |  eavesdropping is not possible.                         |
  |          |* KDC and backend can implement secure methods for       |
  |          |  network access                                         |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_4 |* As in SecProf_3.                                       |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+

      Figure 8: Security bootstrapping methods in different security
                                 profiles

6.5.  Network Security

   Network security refers to the mechanisms used to ensure the secure
   transport of network packets such as 6LoWPAN frames.  This involves a
   multitude of issues ranging from secure discovery, frame
   authentication, routing security, detection of replay, secure group
   communication, etc.  Network security is important to thwart
   potential attacks such as denial-of-service (e.g., through message
   flooding) or routing attacks.

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   The Internet Draft [ID-Tsao] presents a very good overview of attacks
   and security needs classified according to the confidentiality,
   integrity, and availability needs.  A potential limitation is that
   there exist no differentiation in security between different use
   cases and the framework is limited to L3.  The security suites
   gathered in the present ID aim at solving this by allowing for a more
   flexible selection of security needs at L2 and L3.

             +---------------------------------------------------------+
             |Description                                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_1 |* Network key creating a home security domain at L2      |
  |          |  ensuring authentication and freshness of exchanged data|
  |          |* Secure multicast does not ensure origin authentication |
  |          |* No need for secure routing at L3                       |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_2 |* Network key creating a home security domain at L2      |
  |          |  ensuring authentication and freshness of exchanged data|
  |          |* Secure multicast does not ensure origin authentication |
  |          |* No need for secure routing at L3                       |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_3 |* Network key creating an industry security domain at L2 |
  |          |  ensuring authentication and freshness of exchanged data|
  |          |* Secure routing needed (integrity & availability) at L3 |
  |          |  within 6LoWPAN/CoAP                                    |
  |          |* Secure multicast requires origin authentication        |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_4 |* Network key creating an industry security domain at L2 |
  |          |  ensuring authentication and freshness of exchanged data|
  |          |* Inter-domain authentication/secure handoff             |
  |          |* Secure routing needed at L3                            |
  |          |* Secure multicast requires origin authentication        |
  |          |* 6LBR (HTTP-CoAP proxy) requires verification of        |
  |          |  forwarded messages and messages leaving or entering the|
  |          |  6LoWPAN/CoAP network.                                  |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+

      Figure 9: Network security needs in different security profiles

6.6.  Application Security

   In the context of 6LoWPAN/CoAP networks, application security refers
   firstly to the configuration of an application layer protocol, such
   as DTLS, to protect the exchanged information.  It further refers to
   the measures required in potential translation points (e.g., a (HTTP-
   CoAP) proxy) where information can be collected and the privacy
   sphere of users in a given security domain is endangered.

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   Application security for the different security profiles is as
   follows.

             +---------------------------------------------------------+
             |Description                                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_1 |  -                                                      |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_2 |* DTLS is used for end-to-end application security       |
  |          |  between management device and things and between things|
  |          |* DTLS ciphersuites configurable to provide              |
  |          |  confidentiality and/or authentication and/or freshness |
  |          |* Key transport and policies for generation of session   |
  |          |  keys are required                                      |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_3 |* Requirements as in SecProf_2 and                       |
  |          |* DTLS is used for end-to-end application security       |
  |          |  between management device and things and between things|
  |          |* Communication between KDC and each thing secured by    |
  |          |  pairwise keys                                          |
  |          |* Group keys for communication in a group distributed    |
  |          |  by KDC                                                 |
  |          |* Privacy protection should be provided in translation   |
  |          |  points                                                 |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_4 |* Requirements as in SecProf_3 and                       |
  |          |* TLS or DTLS can be used to send commands from the      |
  |          |  backend to the 6LBR or things in a 6LoWPAN/CoAP network|
  |          |* End-to-end secure connectivity from backend required   |
  |          |* Secure broadcast in a network from backend required    |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+

       Figure 10: Application security methods in different security
                                 profiles

   The first two security profiles do not include any security at the
   application layer.  The reason is that, in the first case, security
   is not provided and, in the second case, it seems reasonable to
   provide basic security at L2.  In the third security profile
   (SecProf_2), DTLS becomes the way of protecting messages at
   application layer between things and with the KDC running on a 6LBR.
   A key option refers to the capability of easily configuring DTLS to
   provide a subset of security services (e.g., some applications do not
   require confidentiality) to reduce the impact of security in the
   system operation of resource-constrained things.  In addition to
   basic key management mechanisms running within the KDC, communication
   protocols for key transport or key update are required.  These
   protocols could be based on DTLS.  The next security suite

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   (SecProf_3) requires pairwise keys for communication between things
   within the security domain.  Finally, privacy protection should be
   taken into account to limit access to valuable information -- such as
   identifiers, type of collected data, traffic patterns -- in potential
   translation points (proxies) or in the backend.  The last security
   suite (SecProf_4) further extends the previous set of requirements
   considering security mechanisms to deal with translations between TLS
   and DTLS or for the provision of secure multicast within a 6LoWPAN/
   CoAP network from the backend.

7.  Challenges for a Secure IoT

   In this section, we take a closer look at the various security
   challenges in the operational and technical features of the IoT and
   then discuss how existing Internet security protocols cope with these
   technical and conceptual challenges through the lifecycle of a thing.
   Figure 2 summarizes which requirements need to be met in the
   lifecycle phases as well as some of the considered protocols.  This
   discussion should neither be understood as a comprehensive evaluation
   of all protocols, nor can it cover all possible aspects of IoT
   security.  Yet, it aims at showing concrete limitations of existing
   Internet security protocols in some areas rather than giving an
   abstract discussion about general properties of the protocols.  In
   this regard, the discussion handles issues that are most important
   from the authors' perspectives.

7.1.  Constraints and Heterogeneous Communication

   Coupling resource constrained networks and the powerful Internet is a
   challenge because the resulting heterogeneity of both networks
   complicates protocol design and system operation.  In the following
   we briefly discuss the resource constraints of IoT devices and the
   consequences for the use of Internet Protocols in the IoT domain.

7.1.1.  Tight Resource Constraints

   The IoT is a resource-constrained network that relies on lossy and
   low-bandwidth channels for communication between small nodes,
   regarding CPU, memory, and energy budget.  These characteristics
   directly impact the threats to and the design of security protocols
   for the IoT domain.  First, the use of small packets, e.g., IEEE
   802.15.4 supports 127-byte sized packets at the physical layer, may
   result in fragmentation of larger packets of security protocols.
   This may open new attack vectors for state exhaustion DoS attacks,
   which is especially tragic, e.g., if the fragmentation is caused by
   large key exchange messages of security protocols.  Moreover, packet
   fragmentation commonly downgrades the overall system performance due
   to fragment losses and the need for retransmissions.  For instance,

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   fate-sharing packet flight as implemented by DTLS might aggravate the
   resulting performance loss.

   The size and number of messages should be minimized to reduce memory
   requirements and optimize bandwidth usage.  In this context, layered
   approaches involving a number of protocols might lead to worse
   performance in resource-constrained devices since they combine the
   headers of the different protocols.  In some settings, protocol
   negotiation can increase the number of exchanged messages.  To
   improve performance during basic procedures such as, e.g.,
   bootstrapping, it might be a good strategy to perform those
   procedures at a lower layer.

   Small CPUs and scarce memory limit the usage of resource-expensive
   crypto primitives such as public-key cryptography as used in most
   Internet security standards.  This is especially true, if the basic
   crypto blocks need to be frequently used or the underlying
   application demands a low delay.

   Independently from the development in the IoT domain, all discussed
   security protocols show efforts to reduce the cryptographic cost of
   the required public-key-based key exchanges and signatures with ECC
   [RFC5246][RFC5903][RFC7401][ID-HIP].  Moreover, all protocols have
   been revised in the last years to enable crypto agility, making
   cryptographic primitives interchangeable.  However, these
   improvements are only a first step in reducing the computation and
   communication overhead of Internet protocols.  The question remains
   if other approaches can be applied to leverage key agreement in these
   heavily resource-constrained environments.

   A further fundamental need refers to the limited energy budget
   available to IoT nodes.  Careful protocol (re)design and usage is
   required to reduce not only the energy consumption during normal
   operation, but also under DoS attacks.  Since the energy consumption
   of IoT devices differs from other device classes, judgements on the
   energy consumption of a particular protocol cannot be made without
   tailor-made IoT implementations.

7.1.2.  Denial-of-Service Resistance

   The tight memory and processing constraints of things naturally
   alleviate resource exhaustion attacks.  Especially in unattended T2T
   communication, such attacks are difficult to notice before the
   service becomes unavailable (e.g., because of battery or memory
   exhaustion).  As a DoS countermeasure, DTLS, IKEv2, HIP, and Diet HIP
   implement return routability checks based on a cookie mechanism to
   delay the establishment of state at the responding host until the
   address of the initiating host is verified.  The effectiveness of

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   these defences strongly depends on the routing topology of the
   network.  Return routability checks are particularly effective if
   hosts cannot receive packets addressed to other hosts and if IP
   addresses present meaningful information as is the case in today's
   Internet.  However, they are less effective in broadcast media or
   when attackers can influence the routing and addressing of hosts
   (e.g., if hosts contribute to the routing infrastructure in ad-hoc
   networks and meshes).

   In addition, HIP implements a puzzle mechanism that can force the
   initiator of a connection (and potential attacker) to solve
   cryptographic puzzles with variable difficulties.  Puzzle-based
   defence mechanisms are less dependent on the network topology but
   perform poorly if CPU resources in the network are heterogeneous
   (e.g., if a powerful Internet host attacks a thing).  Increasing the
   puzzle difficulty under attack conditions can easily lead to
   situations, where a powerful attacker can still solve the puzzle
   while weak IoT clients cannot and are excluded from communicating
   with the victim.  Still, puzzle-based approaches are a viable option
   for sheltering IoT devices against unintended overload caused by
   misconfiguration or malfunctioning things.

7.1.3.  End-to-End Security, protocol translation, and the role of
        middleboxes

   The term end-to-end security offers multiple interpretations.  Here,
   we consider end-to-end security in the context end-to-end IP
   connectivity.  Note that this does not necessarily mean from sensor
   to actuator.

   Even though 6LoWPAN and CoAP progress towards reducing the gap
   between Internet protocols and the IoT, they do not target protocol
   specifications that are identical to their Internet counterparts due
   to performance reasons.  Hence, more or less subtle differences
   between IoT protocols and Internet protocols will remain.  While
   these differences can easily be bridged with protocol translators at
   middleboxes, they become major obstacles if end-to-end security
   measures between IoT devices and Internet hosts are used.

   Regarding end-to-end security in the context of confidentiality and
   integrity protection, the packets are processed applying message
   authentication codes or encryption.  These protection methods render
   the protected parts of the packets immutable as rewriting is either
   not possible because a) the relevant information is encrypted and
   inaccessible to the gateway or b) rewriting integrity-protected parts
   of the packet would invalidate the end-to-end integrity protection.
   There are essentially five approaches to handle such end-to-end

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   confidentiality and integrity protection while letting middleboxes
   access/modify data for different purposes:

   1.  Sharing credentials with middleboxes enables middleboxes to
       transform (e.g., decompress, convert, etc.) packets and re-apply
       the security measures after transformation.  This method abandons
       end-to-end security and is only applicable to simple scenarios
       with a rudimentary security model.

   2.  Reusing the Internet wire format in the IoT makes conversion
       between IoT and Internet protocols unnecessary.  However, it can
       lead to poor performance in some use cases because IoT specific
       optimizations (e.g., stateful or stateless compression) are not
       possible.

   3.  Selectively protecting vital and immutable packet parts with a
       MAC or with encryption requires a careful balance between
       performance and security.  Otherwise, this approach will either
       result in poor performance (protect as much as possible) or poor
       security (compress and transform as much as possible).

   4.  Message authentication codes that sustain transformation can be
       realized by considering the order of transformation and
       protection (e.g., by creating a signature before compression so
       that the gateway can decompress the packet without recalculating
       the signature).  [ID-OSCOAP] proposes a solution in this
       direction, also preventing proxies from changing relevant CoAP
       fields.  Such an approach enables IoT specific optimizations but
       is more complex and may require application-specific
       transformations before security is applied.  Moreover, it cannot
       be used with encrypted data because the lack of cleartext
       prevents gateways from transforming packets.

   5.  Object security based mechanisms can bridge the protocol worlds,
       but still requires that the two worlds use the same object
       security formats.  Currently the IoT based object security format
       based on COSE [ID-cose] is different from the Internet based JOSE
       or CMS.  Legacy devices on the Internet side will need to update
       to the newer IoT protocols to enable real end-to-end security.
       Furthermore, middleboxes do not have any access to the data and
       this approach does not prevent an attacker from modifying
       relevant fields in CoAP.

   To the best of our knowledge, none of the mentioned security
   approches that focus on the confidentiality and integrity of the
   communication exchange between two IP end-points provides a fully
   customizable solution in this problem space.

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   We note that end-to-end security could also be considered in the
   context of availability: making sure that the messages are delivered.
   In this case, the end-points cannot control this, but the middleboxes
   play a fundamental role to make sure that exchanged messages are not
   dropped, e.g., due to a DDoS attack.

7.1.4.  New network architectures and paradigm

   There is a multitude of new link layer protocols that aim to address
   the resource-constrained nature of IoT devices.  For example, the
   IEEE 802.11 ah [IEEE802ah] has been specified for extended range and
   lower energy consumption to support Internet of Things (IoT) devices.
   Similarly, Low-Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN) protocols such as LoRa
   [lora], Sigfox [sigfox], NarrowBand IoT (NB-IoT) [nbiot] are all
   designed for resource-constrained devices that require long range and
   low bit rates.  While these protocols allow the IoT devices to
   conserve energy and operate efficiently, they also add additional
   security challenges.  For example, the relatively small MTU can make
   security handshakes with large X509 certificates a significant
   overhead.  At the same time, new communication paradigms also allow
   IoT devices to communicate directly amongst themselves with or
   without support from the network.  This communication paradigm is
   also referred to as Device-to-Device (D2D) or Machine-to-Machine
   (M2M) or Thing-to-Thing (T2T) communication.  D2D is primarily driven
   by network operators that want to utilize short range communication
   to improve the network performance and for supporting proximity based
   service

7.2.  Bootstrapping of a Security Domain

   Creating a security domain from a set of previously unassociated IoT
   devices is a key operation in the lifecycle of a thing and in the IoT
   network.  This aspect is further elaborated and discussed in the
   T2TRG draft on bootstrapping [ID-bootstrap].

7.3.  Operation

   After the bootstrapping phase, the system enters the operational
   phase.  During the operational phase, things can relate to the state
   information created during the bootstrapping phase in order to
   exchange information securely and in an authenticated fashion.  In
   this section, we discuss aspects of communication patterns and
   network dynamics during this phase.

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7.3.1.  End-to-End Security

   Providing end-to-end security is of great importance to address and
   secure individual T2T or H2T communication within one IoT domain.
   Moreover, end-to-end security associations are an important measure
   to bridge the gap between the IoT and the Internet.  IKEv2, TLS and
   DTLS provide end-to-end security services including peer entity
   authentication, end-to-end encryption and integrity protection above
   the network layer and the transport layer respectively.  Once
   bootstrapped, these functions can be carried out without online
   connections to third parties, making the protocols applicable for
   decentralized use in the IoT.  However, protocol translation by
   intermediary nodes may invalidate end-to-end protection measures (see
   Section 7.1.3).  Also these protocols require end-to-end connectivity
   between the devices and do not support store-and-forward scenarios.
   Object security is an option for such scenarios and the work on
   OSCOAP [ID-OSCOAP] is a potential solution in this space, in
   particular, in the context of forwarding proxies.

7.3.2.  Group Membership and Security

   In addition to end-to-end security, group key negotiation is an
   important security service for the T2Ts and Ts2T communication
   patterns in the IoT as efficient local broadcast and multicast relies
   on symmetric group keys.

   All discussed protocols only cover unicast communication and
   therefore do not focus on group-key establishment.  However, the
   Diffie-Hellman keys that are used in IKEv2 and HIP could be used for
   group Diffie-Hellman key-negotiations.  Conceptually, solutions that
   provide secure group communication at the network layer (IPsec/IKEv2,
   HIP/Diet HIP) may have an advantage regarding the cryptographic
   overhead compared to application-focused security solutions (TLS/
   DTLS or OSCOAP).  This is due to the fact that application-focused
   solutions require cryptographic operations per group application,
   whereas network layer approaches may allow to share secure group
   associations between multiple applications (e.g., for neighbor
   discovery and routing or service discovery).  Hence, implementing
   shared features lower in the communication stack can avoid redundant
   security measures.

   A number of group key solutions have been developed in the context of
   the IETF working group MSEC in the context of the MIKEY architecture
   [WG-MSEC][RFC4738].  These are specifically tailored for multicast
   and group broadcast applications in the Internet and should also be
   considered as candidate solutions for group key agreement in the IoT.
   The MIKEY architecture describes a coordinator entity that
   disseminates symmetric keys over pair-wise end-to-end secured

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   channels.  However, such a centralized approach may not be applicable
   in a distributed environment, where the choice of one or several
   coordinators and the management of the group key is not trivial.

7.3.3.  Mobility and IP Network Dynamics

   It is expected that many things (e.g., wearable sensors, and user
   devices) will be mobile in the sense that they are attached to
   different networks during the lifetime of a security association.
   Built-in mobility signaling can greatly reduce the overhead of the
   cryptographic protocols because unnecessary and costly re-
   establishments of the session (possibly including handshake and key
   agreement) can be avoided.  IKEv2 supports host mobility with the
   MOBIKE [RFC4555][RFC4621] extension.  MOBIKE refrains from applying
   heavyweight cryptographic extensions for mobility.  However, MOBIKE
   mandates the use of IPsec tunnel mode which requires to transmit an
   additional IP header in each packet.  This additional overhead could
   be alleviated by using header compression methods or the Bound End-
   to-End Tunnel (BEET) mode [ID-Nikander], a hybrid of tunnel and
   transport mode with smaller packet headers.

   HIP offers a simple yet effective mobility management by allowing
   hosts to signal changes to their associations [RFC5206].  However,
   slight adjustments might be necessary to reduce the cryptographic
   costs, for example, by making the public-key signatures in the
   mobility messages optional.  Diet HIP does not define mobility yet
   but it is sufficiently similar to HIP to employ the same mechanisms.
   TLS and DTLS do not have standards for mobility support, however,
   work on DTLS mobility exists in the form of an Internet draft
   [ID-Williams].  The specific need for IP-layer mobility mainly
   depends on the scenario in which nodes operate.  In many cases,
   mobility support by means of a mobile gateway may suffice to enable
   mobile IoT networks, such as body sensor networks.  However, if
   individual things change their point of network attachment while
   communicating, mobility support may gain importance.

7.4.  Software update

   IoT devices have a reputation for being insecure at the time of
   manufacture.  Yet they are often expected to stay functional in live
   deployments for years and even decades.  Additionally, these devices
   typically operate unattended with direct Internet connectivity.
   Therefore, a remote software update mechanism to fix vulnerabilities,
   to update configuration settings, and for adding new functionality is
   needed.

   Schneier [SchneierSecurity] in his essay expresses concerns about the
   status of software and firmware update mechanisms for Internet of

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   Things (IoT) devices.  He highlights several challenges that hinder
   mechanisms for secure software update of IoT devices.  First, there
   is a lack of incentives for manufactures, vendors and others on the
   supply chain to issue updates for their devices.  Second, parts of
   the software running on the IoT devices is simply a binary blob
   without any source code available.  Since the complete source code is
   not available, no patches can be written for that piece of code.
   Third, even when updates are available, users generally have to
   manually download and install those updates.  However, users are
   never alerted about security updates and many times do not have the
   necessary expertise to manually administer the required updates.

   The FTC staff report on Internet of Things - Privacy & Security in a
   Connected World [FTCreport] and the Article 29 Working Party Opinion
   8/2014 on the on Recent Developments on the Internet of Things
   [Article29] also document the challenges for secure remote software
   update of IoT devices.  They note that even providing such a software
   update capability may add new vulnerabilities for constrained
   devices.  For example, a buffer overflow vulnerability in the
   implementation of a software update protocol (TR69) [TR69] and an
   expired certificate in a hub device [wink] demonstrate how the
   software update process itself can introduce vulnerabilities.

   While powerful IoT devices that run general purpose operating systems
   can make use of sophisticated software update mechanisms known from
   the desktop world, a more considerate effort is needed for resource-
   constrained devices that don't have any operating system and are
   typically not equipped with a memory management unit or similar
   tools.  The IAB also organized a workshop to understand the
   challenges for secure software update of IoT devices.  A summary of
   the workshop and the proposed next steps have been documented
   [iotsu].

7.5.  Verifying device behavior

   Users often have a false sense of privacy when using new Internet of
   Things (IoT) appliances such as Internet-connected smart televisions,
   speakers and cameras.  Recent revelations have shown that this user
   belief is often unfounded.  Many IoT device vendors have been caught
   collecting sensitive private data through these connected appliances
   with or without appropriate user warnings [cctv].

   An IoT device user/owner would like to monitor and know if the device
   is calling home (i.e. verify its operational behavior).  The calling
   home feature may be necessary in some scenarios, such as during the
   initial configuration of the device.  However, the user should be
   kept aware of the data that the device is sending back to the vendor.

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   For example, the user should be ensured that his/her TV is not
   sending data when he/she inserts a new USB stick.

   Providing such information to the users in an understandable fashion
   is challenging.  This is because the IoT devices are not only
   resource-constrained in terms of their computational capability, but
   also in terms of the user interface available.  Also, the network
   infrastructure where these devices are deployed will vary
   significantly from one user environment to another.  Therefore, where
   and how this monitoring feature is implemented still remains an open
   question.

7.6.  End-of-life

   Like all commercial devices, most IoT devices will be end-of-lifed by
   vendors or even network operators.  This may be planned or unplanned
   (for example when the vendor or manufacturer goes bankrupt or when a
   network operator moves to a different type of networking technology).
   A user should still be able to use and perhaps even update the
   device.  This requires for some form of authorization handover.

   Although this may seem far fetched given the commercial interests and
   market dynamics, we have examples from the mobile world where the
   devices have been functional and up-to-date long after the original
   vendor stopped supporting the device.  CyanogenMod for Android
   devices and OpenWrt for home routers are two such instances where
   users have been able to use and update their devices even after they
   were end-of-lifed.  Admittedly these are not easy for an average
   users to install and configure on their devices.  With the deployment
   of millions of IoT devices, simpler mechanisms are needed to allow
   users to add new root-of-trusts and install software and firmware
   from other sources once the device has been end-of-lifed.

7.7.  Testing: bug hunting and vulnerabilities

   Given that the IoT devices often have inadvertent vulnerabilities,
   both users and developers would want to perform extensive testing on
   their IoT devices, networks, and systems.  Nonetheless, since the
   devices are resource-constrained and manufactured by multiple
   vendors, some of them very small, devices might be shipped with very
   limited testing, so that bugs can remain and can be exploited at a
   later stage.  This leads to two main types of challenges:

   1.  It remains to be seen how the software testing and quality
       assurance mechanisms used from the desktop and mobile world will
       be applied to IoT devices to give end users the confidence that
       the purchased devices are robust.

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   2.  It is also an open question how combination of devices of
       multiple vendors might actually lead to dangerous network
       configurations, e.g., if combination of specific devices can
       trigger unexpected behavior.

7.8.  Quantum-resistance

   Many IoT systems that are being deployed today will remain
   operational for many years.  With the advancements made in the field
   of quantum computers, it is possible that large-scale quantum
   computers are available in the future for performing cryptanalysis on
   existing cryptographic algorithms and cipher suites.  If this
   happened, it would have two consequences.  First, functionalities
   enabled by means of RSA/ECC - namely key exchange, public-key
   encryption and signature - would not be secure anymore due to Shor's
   algorithm.  Second, the security level of symmetric algorithms will
   decrease, e.g., the security of a block cipher with a key size of b
   bits will only offer b/2 bits of security due to Grover's algorithm.

   This would require to move to quantum-resistant alternatives, in
   particular, for those functionalities involving key exchange, public-
   key encryption and signatures.  While such future planning is hard,
   it may be a necessity in certain critical IoT deployments which are
   expected to last decades or more.  Although increasing the key-size
   of the different algorithms is definitely an option, it would also
   incur additional computation overhead and network traffic.  This
   would be undesirable in most scenarios.  There have been recent
   advancements in quantum-resistant cryptography.

   We refer to [ETSI_GR_QSC_001] for an extensive overview of existing
   quantum-resistant cryptography.  RFC7696 provides guidelines for
   cryptographic algorithm agility.

7.9.  Privacy protection

   Users will be surrounded by hundreds of connected devices.  Even if
   the communication links are encrypted and protected, information
   about the users might be collected for different purposes affecting
   their privacy.  In [Ziegeldorf], privacy in the IoT is defined as the
   threefold guarantee to the user for: 1. awareness of privacy risks
   imposed by smart things and services surrounding the data subject, 2.
   individual control over the collection and processing of personal
   information by the surrounding smart things, 3. awareness and control
   of subsequent use and dissemination of personal information by those
   entities to any entity outside the subject's personal control sphere.

   Based on this definition, several privacy threats and challenges are
   identified in the work of Ziegeldorf:

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   1.  Identification - refers to the identification of the users and
       their objects.

   2.  Localization - relates to the capability of locating a user and
       even tracking him.

   3.  Profiling - is about creating a profile of the user and her
       preferences.

   4.  Interaction - occurs when a user has been profiled and a given
       interaction is preferred, presenting (e.g., visually) some
       information that discloses private information.

   5.  Lifecycle transitions - take place when devices are, e.g., sold
       without properly removing private data.

   6.  Inventory attacks - happen if specific information about (smart)
       objects in possession of a user is disclosed.

   7.  Linkage - is about when information of two of more IoT systems is
       combined so that a broader view on the personal data is created.

   When IoT systems are deployed, the above issues should be considered
   to ensure that private data remains private.  How this is achieved
   remains an open issue.

7.10.  Data leakage

   IoT devices are resource constrained and often deployed in unattended
   environments or can just be bought in the Internet.  Therefore, an
   attacker can have direct access to the device and apply more advance
   techniques that a traditional black box model does not consider such
   as side-channel attacks or code disassembly.  By doing this, the
   attacker can try to retrieve data such as:

   1.  long term keys that might be used perform attacks on devices
       deployed in other locations.

   2.  source code that might let the user determine bugs or find
       exploits to perform other types of attacks, or just sell it,

   3.  proprietary algorithms that could be counterfeited or modified to
       perform advanced attacks.

   Protection against such data leakage patterns is not trivial since
   devices are inherently resource-constrained.  An open question is
   which techniques can be used to protect IoT devices in such a strong
   attack model.

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7.11.  Trustworthy IoT Operation

   Flaws in the design and implementation of a secure IoT device and
   network can lead to secure vulnerabilities.  An example is a flaw is
   the distribution of an Internet-connected IoT device in which a
   default password is used in all devices.  Many IoT devices can be
   found in the Internet by means of tools such as Shodan, and if they
   have any vulnerability, it can then be exploited at scale, e.g., to
   launch DDoS attacks.  This is not fiction but reality as Dyn, a mayor
   DNS was attacked by means of a DDoS attack originated from a large
   IoT botnet composed of thousands of compromised IP-cameras.  Open
   questions in this area are:

   1.  How to prevent large scale vulnerabilities in IoT devices?

   2.  How to prevent attackers from exploiting vulnerabilities in IoT
       devices at large scale?

   3.  If the vulnerability has been exploited, how do we stop a large
       scale attack before any damage is caused?

   Some ideas are being explored to addess this issue.  One of this
   approaches refers to the specification of Manufacturer Usage
   Description (MUD) files [ID-MUD].  The idea behind MUD files is
   simple: devices would disclose the location of its MUD file to the
   network during installation.  The network can then (i) retrieve those
   files, (ii) learn from the manufacturers the intended usage of the
   devices, e.g., which services they require to access, and then (iii)
   create suitable filters.

8.  Conclusions and Next Steps

   This Internet Draft provides IoT security researchers, system
   designers and implements with an overview of both operational and
   security requirements in the IP-based Internet of Things.  We discuss
   a general threat model, security issues, state of the art, and tools
   to mitigate security threats.  We further introduce a number of
   potential security profiles fitting different types of IoT
   deployments and discuss key security challenges.

   Although big steps have been realized during the last years, as
   summarized in Section Section 5.1 and many organizations are
   publishing general recommendations (Section Section 5.3) describing
   how the IoT should be secured, there are many challenges ahead that
   require further attention.  Challenges of particular importance are
   bootstrapping of security, group security, secure software updates,
   long-term security and quantum-resistance, privacy protection, data
   leakage prevention - where data could be cryptographic keys, personal

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   data, or even algorithms - and ensuring a trustworthy IoT operation.
   All these problems are important; however, different deployment
   environment have different operational and security demands.  Thus, a
   potential approach is the definition and standardization of security
   profiles, e.g., similar to the exemplary profiles introduced in
   Section Section 6, to ensure minimum security capabilities in
   different environments while ensuring interoperability.

9.  Security Considerations

   This document reflects upon the requirements and challenges of the
   security architectural framework for the Internet of Things.

10.  IANA Considerations

   This document contains no request to IANA.

11.  Acknowledgments

   We gratefully acknowledge feedback and fruitful discussion with
   Tobias Heer, Robert Moskowitz, and Thorsten Dahm.  We acknowledge the
   additional authors of the previous version of this document Sye Loong
   Keoh, Rene Hummen and Rene Struik.

12.  Informative References

   [Article29]
              "Opinion 8/2014 on the on Recent Developments on the
              Internet of Things", Web http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-
              protection/article-29/documentation/opinion-
              recommendation/files/2014/wp223_en.pdf, n.d..

   [AUTO-ID]  "AUTO-ID LABS", Web http://www.autoidlabs.org/, September
              2010.

   [BACNET]   "BACnet", Web http://www.bacnet.org/, February 2011.

   [BITAG]    "Internet of Things (IoT) Security and Privacy
              Recommendations", Web http://www.bitag.org/report-
              internet-of-things-security-privacy-recommendations.php,
              n.d..

   [cctv]     "Backdoor In MVPower DVR Firmware Sends CCTV Stills To an
              Email Address In China", Web
              https://hardware.slashdot.org/story/16/02/17/0422259/
              backdoor-in-mvpower-dvr-firmware-sends-cctv-stills-to-an-
              email-address-in-china, n.d..

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   [CSA]      "Security Guidance for Early Adopters of the Internet of
              Things (IoT)", Web
              https://downloads.cloudsecurityalliance.org/whitepapers/Se
              curity_Guidance_for_Early_Adopters_of_the_Internet_of_Thin
              gs.pdf, n.d..

   [d2dsecurity]
              Haus, M., Waqas, M., Ding, A., Li, Y., Tarkoma, S., and J.
              Ott, "Security and Privacy in Device-to-Device (D2D)
              Communication: A Review", Paper IEEE Communications
              Surveys and Tutorials, 2016.

   [DALI]     "DALI", Web http://www.dalibydesign.us/dali.html, February
              2011.

   [DHS]      "Strategic Principles For Securing the Internet of Things
              (IoT)", Web
              https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/
              Strategic_Principles_for_Securing_the_Internet_of_Things-
              2016-1115-FINAL....pdf, n.d..

   [ENISA_ICS]
              "Communication network dependencies for ICS/SCADA
              Systems", European Union Agency For Network And
              Information Security , February 2017.

   [ETSI_GR_QSC_001]
              "Quantum-Safe Cryptography (QSC);Quantum-safe algorithmic
              framework", European Telecommunications Standards
              Institute (ETSI) , June 2016.

   [Fairhair]
              "Fairhair Alliance", Web https://www.fairhair-
              alliance.org/, n.d..

   [FCC]      "Federal Communications Comssion Response 12-05-2016",
              FCC , February 2016.

   [FTCreport]
              "FTC Report on Internet of Things Urges Companies to Adopt
              Best Practices to Address Consumer Privacy and Security
              Risks", Web https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-
              releases/2015/01/ftc-report-internet-things-urges-
              companies-adopt-best-practices, n.d..

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   [GSMAsecurity]
              "GSMA IoT Security Guidelines", Web
              http://www.gsma.com/connectedliving/future-iot-networks/
              iot-security-guidelines/, n.d..

   [ID-6lodect]
              Mariager, P., Petersen, J., Shelby, Z., Logt, M., and D.
              Barthel, "Transmission of IPv6 Packets over DECT Ultra Low
              Energy", draft-ietf-6lo-dect-ule-09 , December 2016.

   [ID-6lonfc]
              Choi, Y., Hong, Y., Youn, J., Kim, D., and J. Choi,
              "Transmission of IPv6 Packets over Near Field
              Communication", draft-ietf-6lo-nfc-05 , October 2016.

   [ID-6tisch]
              Thubert, P., "An Architecture for IPv6 over the TSCH mode
              of IEEE 802.15.4", draft-ietf-6tisch-architecture-11 ,
              January 2017.

   [ID-aceoauth]
              Seitz, L., Selander, G., Wahlstroem, E., Erdtman, S., and
              H. Tschofenig, "Authentication and Authorization for
              Constrained Environments (ACE)", draft-ietf-ace-oauth-
              authz-05 , March 2011.

   [ID-bootstrap]
              Sarikaya, B. and M. Sethi, "Secure IoT Bootstrapping : A
              Survey", draft-sarikaya-t2trg-sbootstrapping-01 , July
              2016.

   [ID-cose]  Schaad, J., "CBOR Object Signing and Encryption (COSE)",
              draft-ietf-cose-msg-24 , November 2016.

   [ID-Daniel]
              Park, S., Kim, K., Haddad, W., Chakrabarti, S., and J.
              Laganier, "IPv6 over Low Power WPAN Security Analysis",
              draft-daniel-6lowpan-security-analysis-05 , March 2011.

   [ID-dietesp]
              Migault, D., Guggemos, T., and C. Bormann, "Diet-ESP: a
              flexible and compressed format for IPsec/ESP", draft-mglt-
              6lo-diet-esp-02 , August 2016.

   [ID-Hartke]
              Hartke, K. and O. Bergmann, "Datagram Transport Layer
              Security in Constrained Environments", draft-hartke-core-
              codtls-02 , July 2012.

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   [ID-HIP]   Moskowitz, R., "HIP Diet EXchange (DEX)", draft-moskowitz-
              hip-rg-dex-06 , May 2012.

   [ID-Moore]
              Moore, K., Barnes, R., and H. Tschofenig, "Best Current
              Practices for Securing Internet of Things (IoT) Devices",
              draft-moore-iot-security-bcp-00 , October 2016.

   [ID-MUD]   Lear, E., Droms, R., and D. Domascanu, "Manufacturer Usage
              Description Specification", March 2017.

   [ID-Nikander]
              Nikander, P. and J. Melen, "A Bound End-to-End
              Tunnel(BEET) mode for ESP", draft-nikander-esp-beet-
              mode-09 , August 2008.

   [ID-OFlynn]
              O'Flynn, C., Sarikaya, B., Ohba, Y., Cao, Z., and R.
              Cragie, "Security Bootstrapping of Resource-Constrained
              Devices", draft-oflynn-core-bootstrapping-03 , November
              2010.

   [ID-OSCOAP]
              Selander, G., Mattsson, J., Palombini, F., and L. Seitz,
              "Object Security of CoAP (OSCOAP)", draft-selander-ace-
              object-security-05 , July 2016.

   [ID-proHTTPCoAP]
              Castellani, A., Loreto, S., Rahman, A., Fossati, T., and
              E. Dijk, "Best practices for HTTP-CoAP mapping
              implementation", draft-castellani-core-http-mapping-07 ,
              February 2013.

   [ID-rd]    Shelby, Z., Koster, M., Bormann, C., and P. Stok, "CoRE
              Resource Directory", draft-ietf-core-resource-
              directory-09 , October 2016.

   [ID-senml]
              Jennings, C., Shelby, Z., Arkko, J., Keranen, A., and C.
              Bormann, "Media Types for Sensor Measurement Lists
              (SenML)", draft-ietf-core-resource-directory-09 , October
              2016.

   [ID-Tsao]  Tsao, T., Alexander, R., Dohler, M., Daza, V., and A.
              Lozano, "A Security Framework for Routing over Low Power
              and Lossy Networks", draft-ietf-roll-security-
              framework-07 , January 2012.

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   [ID-Williams]
              Williams, M. and J. Barrett, "Mobile DTLS", draft-barrett-
              mobile-dtls-00 , March 2009.

   [IEEE802ah]
              "Status of Project IEEE 802.11ah, IEEE P802.11- Task Group
              AH-Meeting Update.",
              Web http://www.ieee802.org/11/Reports/tgah_update.htm,
              n.d..

   [IIoT]     "Industrial Internet Consortium",
              Web http://www.iiconsortium.org/, n.d..

   [IoTSecFoundation]
              "Establishing Principles for Internet of Things Security",
              Web https://iotsecurityfoundation.org/establishing-
              principles-for-internet-of-things-security/, n.d..

   [iotsu]    "Patching the Internet of Things: IoT Software Update
              Workshop 2016", Web
              https://www.ietf.org/blog/2016/07/patching-the-internet-
              of-things-iot-software-update-workshop-2016/, n.d..

   [IPSO]     "IPSO Alliance", Web http://www.ipso-alliance.org, n.d..

   [JOURNAL-Perrig]
              Perrig, A., Szewczyk, R., Wen, V., Culler, D., and J.
              Tygar, "SPINS: Security protocols for Sensor Networks",
              Journal Wireless Networks, September 2002.

   [lora]     "LoRa - Wide Area Networks for IoT", Web https://www.lora-
              alliance.org/, n.d..

   [nbiot]    "NarrowBand IoT", Web
              http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/tsg_ran/TSG_RAN/TSGR_69/Docs/
              RP-151621.zip, n.d..

   [NHTSA]    "Cybersecurity Best Practices for Modern Vehicles", Web
              https://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nvs/
              pdf/812333_CybersecurityForModernVehicles.pdf, n.d..

   [NIST]     Dworkin, M., "NIST Specification Publication 800-38B",
              2005.

Garcia-Morchon, et al.   Expires October 2, 2017               [Page 49]
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   [NIST-Guide]
              Ross, R., McEVILLEY, M., and J. Oren, "Systems Security
              Engineering", Web
              http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/
              NIST.SP.800-160.pdf, n.d..

   [nist_lightweight_project]
              "NIST lightweight Project", Web www.nist.gov/programs-
              projects/lightweight-cryptography,
              www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2016/10/17/
              sonmez-turan-presentation-lwc2016.pdf, n.d..

   [OCF]      "Open Connectivity Foundation",
              Web https://openconnectivity.org/, n.d..

   [OneM2M]   "OneM2M", Web http://www.onem2m.org/, n.d..

   [OWASP]    "IoT Security Guidance",
              Web https://www.owasp.org/index.php/IoT_Security_Guidance,
              n.d..

   [PROC-Chan]
              Chan, H., Perrig, A., and D. Song, "Random Key
              Predistribution Schemes for Sensor Networks",
              Proceedings IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, 2003.

   [PROC-Gupta]
              Gupta, V., Wurm, M., Zhu, Y., Millard, M., Fung, S., Gura,
              N., Eberle, H., and S. Shantz, "Sizzle: A Standards-based
              End-to-End Security Architecture for the Embedded
              Internet", Proceedings Pervasive Computing and
              Communications (PerCom), 2005.

   [PROC-Smetters-02]
              Balfanz, D., Smetters, D., Steward, P., and H. Chi Wong,,
              "Talking To Strangers: Authentication in Ad-Hoc Wireless
              Networks", Paper NDSS, 2002.

   [PROC-Smetters-04]
              Balfanz, D., Durfee, G., Grinter, R., Smetters, D., and P.
              Steward, "Network-in-a-Box: How to Set Up a Secure
              Wireless Network in Under a Minute", Paper USENIX, 2004.

   [PROC-Stajano-99]
              Stajano, F. and R. Anderson, "Resurrecting Duckling -
              Security Issues for Adhoc Wireless Networks",
              7th International Workshop Proceedings, November 1999.

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   [RFC2119]  Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
              Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC2119, March 1997,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2119>.

   [RFC2818]  Rescorla, E., "HTTP Over TLS", RFC 2818,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC2818, May 2000,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2818>.

   [RFC3261]  Rosenberg, J., Schulzrinne, H., Camarillo, G., Johnston,
              A., Peterson, J., Sparks, R., Handley, M., and E.
              Schooler, "SIP: Session Initiation Protocol", RFC 3261,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC3261, June 2002,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3261>.

   [RFC3748]  Aboba, B., Blunk, L., Vollbrecht, J., Carlson, J., and H.
              Levkowetz, Ed., "Extensible Authentication Protocol
              (EAP)", RFC 3748, DOI 10.17487/RFC3748, June 2004,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3748>.

   [RFC3756]  Nikander, P., Ed., Kempf, J., and E. Nordmark, "IPv6
              Neighbor Discovery (ND) Trust Models and Threats",
              RFC 3756, DOI 10.17487/RFC3756, May 2004,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3756>.

   [RFC3833]  Atkins, D. and R. Austein, "Threat Analysis of the Domain
              Name System (DNS)", RFC 3833, DOI 10.17487/RFC3833, August
              2004, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3833>.

   [RFC4016]  Parthasarathy, M., "Protocol for Carrying Authentication
              and Network Access (PANA) Threat Analysis and Security
              Requirements", RFC 4016, DOI 10.17487/RFC4016, March 2005,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4016>.

   [RFC4251]  Ylonen, T. and C. Lonvick, Ed., "The Secure Shell (SSH)
              Protocol Architecture", RFC 4251, DOI 10.17487/RFC4251,
              January 2006, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4251>.

   [RFC4555]  Eronen, P., "IKEv2 Mobility and Multihoming Protocol
              (MOBIKE)", RFC 4555, DOI 10.17487/RFC4555, June 2006,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4555>.

   [RFC4621]  Kivinen, T. and H. Tschofenig, "Design of the IKEv2
              Mobility and Multihoming (MOBIKE) Protocol", RFC 4621,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC4621, August 2006,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4621>.

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   [RFC4738]  Ignjatic, D., Dondeti, L., Audet, F., and P. Lin, "MIKEY-
              RSA-R: An Additional Mode of Key Distribution in
              Multimedia Internet KEYing (MIKEY)", RFC 4738,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC4738, November 2006,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4738>.

   [RFC4919]  Kushalnagar, N., Montenegro, G., and C. Schumacher, "IPv6
              over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPANs):
              Overview, Assumptions, Problem Statement, and Goals",
              RFC 4919, DOI 10.17487/RFC4919, August 2007,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4919>.

   [RFC4944]  Montenegro, G., Kushalnagar, N., Hui, J., and D. Culler,
              "Transmission of IPv6 Packets over IEEE 802.15.4
              Networks", RFC 4944, DOI 10.17487/RFC4944, September 2007,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4944>.

   [RFC5191]  Forsberg, D., Ohba, Y., Ed., Patil, B., Tschofenig, H.,
              and A. Yegin, "Protocol for Carrying Authentication for
              Network Access (PANA)", RFC 5191, DOI 10.17487/RFC5191,
              May 2008, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5191>.

   [RFC5206]  Nikander, P., Henderson, T., Ed., Vogt, C., and J. Arkko,
              "End-Host Mobility and Multihoming with the Host Identity
              Protocol", RFC 5206, DOI 10.17487/RFC5206, April 2008,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5206>.

   [RFC5246]  Dierks, T. and E. Rescorla, "The Transport Layer Security
              (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2", RFC 5246,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC5246, August 2008,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5246>.

   [RFC5713]  Moustafa, H., Tschofenig, H., and S. De Cnodder, "Security
              Threats and Security Requirements for the Access Node
              Control Protocol (ANCP)", RFC 5713, DOI 10.17487/RFC5713,
              January 2010, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5713>.

   [RFC5903]  Fu, D. and J. Solinas, "Elliptic Curve Groups modulo a
              Prime (ECP Groups) for IKE and IKEv2", RFC 5903,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC5903, June 2010,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5903>.

   [RFC6345]  Duffy, P., Chakrabarti, S., Cragie, R., Ohba, Y., Ed., and
              A. Yegin, "Protocol for Carrying Authentication for
              Network Access (PANA) Relay Element", RFC 6345,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC6345, August 2011,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6345>.

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   [RFC6347]  Rescorla, E. and N. Modadugu, "Datagram Transport Layer
              Security Version 1.2", RFC 6347, DOI 10.17487/RFC6347,
              January 2012, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6347>.

   [RFC6550]  Winter, T., Ed., Thubert, P., Ed., Brandt, A., Hui, J.,
              Kelsey, R., Levis, P., Pister, K., Struik, R., Vasseur,
              JP., and R. Alexander, "RPL: IPv6 Routing Protocol for
              Low-Power and Lossy Networks", RFC 6550,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC6550, March 2012,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6550>.

   [RFC6551]  Vasseur, JP., Ed., Kim, M., Ed., Pister, K., Dejean, N.,
              and D. Barthel, "Routing Metrics Used for Path Calculation
              in Low-Power and Lossy Networks", RFC 6551,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC6551, March 2012,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6551>.

   [RFC6568]  Kim, E., Kaspar, D., and JP. Vasseur, "Design and
              Application Spaces for IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless
              Personal Area Networks (6LoWPANs)", RFC 6568,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC6568, April 2012,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6568>.

   [RFC6690]  Shelby, Z., "Constrained RESTful Environments (CoRE) Link
              Format", RFC 6690, DOI 10.17487/RFC6690, August 2012,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6690>.

   [RFC6749]  Hardt, D., Ed., "The OAuth 2.0 Authorization Framework",
              RFC 6749, DOI 10.17487/RFC6749, October 2012,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6749>.

   [RFC7049]  Bormann, C. and P. Hoffman, "Concise Binary Object
              Representation (CBOR)", RFC 7049, DOI 10.17487/RFC7049,
              October 2013, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7049>.

   [RFC7158]  Bray, T., Ed., "The JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) Data
              Interchange Format", RFC 7158, DOI 10.17487/RFC7158, March
              2014, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7158>.

   [RFC7252]  Shelby, Z., Hartke, K., and C. Bormann, "The Constrained
              Application Protocol (CoAP)", RFC 7252,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7252, June 2014,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7252>.

   [RFC7296]  Kaufman, C., Hoffman, P., Nir, Y., Eronen, P., and T.
              Kivinen, "Internet Key Exchange Protocol Version 2
              (IKEv2)", STD 79, RFC 7296, DOI 10.17487/RFC7296, October
              2014, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7296>.

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   [RFC7390]  Rahman, A., Ed. and E. Dijk, Ed., "Group Communication for
              the Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)", RFC 7390,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7390, October 2014,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7390>.

   [RFC7401]  Moskowitz, R., Ed., Heer, T., Jokela, P., and T.
              Henderson, "Host Identity Protocol Version 2 (HIPv2)",
              RFC 7401, DOI 10.17487/RFC7401, April 2015,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7401>.

   [RFC7515]  Jones, M., Bradley, J., and N. Sakimura, "JSON Web
              Signature (JWS)", RFC 7515, DOI 10.17487/RFC7515, May
              2015, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7515>.

   [RFC7517]  Jones, M., "JSON Web Key (JWK)", RFC 7517,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7517, May 2015,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7517>.

   [RFC7519]  Jones, M., Bradley, J., and N. Sakimura, "JSON Web Token
              (JWT)", RFC 7519, DOI 10.17487/RFC7519, May 2015,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7519>.

   [RFC7668]  Nieminen, J., Savolainen, T., Isomaki, M., Patil, B.,
              Shelby, Z., and C. Gomez, "IPv6 over BLUETOOTH(R) Low
              Energy", RFC 7668, DOI 10.17487/RFC7668, October 2015,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7668>.

   [RFC7696]  Housley, R., "Guidelines for Cryptographic Algorithm
              Agility and Selecting Mandatory-to-Implement Algorithms",
              BCP 201, RFC 7696, DOI 10.17487/RFC7696, November 2015,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7696>.

   [RFC7815]  Kivinen, T., "Minimal Internet Key Exchange Version 2
              (IKEv2) Initiator Implementation", RFC 7815,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7815, March 2016,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7815>.

   [RFC7925]  Tschofenig, H., Ed. and T. Fossati, "Transport Layer
              Security (TLS) / Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)
              Profiles for the Internet of Things", RFC 7925,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7925, July 2016,
              <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7925>.

   [RG-T2TRG]
              "IRTF Thing-to-Thing (T2TRG) Research Group",
              Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/rg/t2trg/charter/,
              December 2015.

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   [SchneierSecurity]
              "The Internet of Things Is Wildly Insecure--And Often
              Unpatchable", Web
              https://www.schneier.com/essays/archives/2014/01/
              the_internet_of_thin.html, n.d..

   [sigfox]   "Sigfox - The Global Communications Service Provider for
              the Internet of Things (IoT)",
              Web https://www.sigfox.com/, n.d..

   [SPEKE]    "IEEE P1363.2: Password-based Cryptography", 2008.

   [THESIS-Langheinrich]
              Langheinrich, M., "Personal Privacy in Ubiquitous
              Computing", PhD Thesis ETH Zurich, 2005.

   [Thread]   "Thread Group", Web http://threadgroup.org/, n.d..

   [TinyDTLS]
              "TinyDTLS", Web http://tinydtls.sourceforge.net/, February
              2012.

   [TR69]     "Too Many Cooks - Exploiting the Internet-of-TR-
              069-Things", Web https://media.ccc.de/v/31c3_-_6166_-_en_-
              _saal_6_-_201412282145_-_too_many_cooks_-
              _exploiting_the_internet-of-tr-069-things_-
              _lior_oppenheim_-_shahar_tal, n.d..

   [WG-6LoWPAN]
              "IETF 6LoWPAN Working Group",
              Web http://tools.ietf.org/wg/6lowpan/, February 2011.

   [WG-ACE]   "IETF Authentication and Authorization for Constrained
              Environments (ACE) Working Group",
              Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/ace/charter/, June
              2014.

   [WG-CoRE]  "IETF Constrained RESTful Environment (CoRE) Working
              Group", Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/core/charter/,
              February 2011.

   [WG-LWIG]  "IETF Light-Weight Implementation Guidance (LWIG) Working
              Group", Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/lwig/charter/,
              March 2011.

   [WG-MSEC]  "MSEC Working Group",
              Web http://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/msec/, n.d..

Garcia-Morchon, et al.   Expires October 2, 2017               [Page 55]
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   [wink]     "Wink's Outage Shows Us How Frustrating Smart Homes Could
              Be",
              Web http://www.wired.com/2015/04/smart-home-headaches/,
              n.d..

   [ZB]       "ZigBee Alliance", Web http://www.zigbee.org/, February
              2011.

   [Ziegeldorf]
              Ziegeldorf, J., Garcia-Morchon, O., and K. Wehrle,,
              "Privacy in the Internet of Things: Threats and
              Challenges", Paper Security and Communication Networks -
              Special Issue on Security in a Completely Interconnected
              World, 2013.

Authors' Addresses

   Oscar Garcia-Morchon
   Philips IP&S
   High Tech Campus 5
   Eindhoven,   5656 AA
   The Netherlands

   Email: oscar.garcia-morchon@philips.com

   Sandeep S. Kumar
   Philips Research
   High Tech Campus
   Eindhoven,   5656 AA
   The Netherlands

   Email: sandeep.kumar@philips.com

   Mohit Sethi
   Ericsson
   Hirsalantie 11
   Jorvas
   Finland

   Email: mohit@piuha.net

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