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DECADE Architecture
draft-ietf-decade-arch-09

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This is an older version of an Internet-Draft whose latest revision state is "Expired".
Authors Richard Alimi , Akbar Rahman , Dirk Kutscher , Y. Richard Yang
Last updated 2012-09-19 (Latest revision 2012-08-13)
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draft-ietf-decade-arch-09
DECADE                                                          R. Alimi
Internet-Draft                                                    Google
Intended status: Informational                                 A. Rahman
Expires: February 14, 2013              InterDigital Communications, LLC
                                                             D. Kutscher
                                                                     NEC
                                                                 Y. Yang
                                                         Yale University
                                                         August 13, 2012

                          DECADE Architecture
                       draft-ietf-decade-arch-09

Abstract

   Content Distribution Applications (e.g., P2P applications) are widely
   used on the Internet and make up a large portion of the traffic in
   many networks.  One technique to improve the network efficiency of
   these applications is to introduce storage capabilities within the
   networks; this is the capability provided by a DECADE (DECoupled
   Application Data Enroute) compatible system.  This document presents
   an architecture, discusses the underlying principles, and identifies
   key functionalities in the architecture for introducing a DECADE-
   compatible in-network storage system.  In addition, some examples are
   given to illustrate these concepts.

Requirements Language

   The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
   "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this
   document are to be interpreted as described in RFC 2119 [RFC2119].

Status of this Memo

   This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
   provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.

   Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
   Task Force (IETF).  Note that other groups may also distribute
   working documents as Internet-Drafts.  The list of current Internet-
   Drafts is at http://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.

   Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
   and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
   time.  It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
   material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."

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   This Internet-Draft will expire on February 14, 2013.

Copyright Notice

   Copyright (c) 2012 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
   document authors.  All rights reserved.

   This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
   Provisions Relating to IETF Documents
   (http://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of
   publication of this document.  Please review these documents
   carefully, as they describe your rights and restrictions with respect
   to this document.  Code Components extracted from this document must
   include Simplified BSD License text as described in Section 4.e of
   the Trust Legal Provisions and are provided without warranty as
   described in the Simplified BSD License.

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Table of Contents

   1.  Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4
   2.  Terminology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4
   3.  Protocol Flow  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4
     3.1.  Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4
     3.2.  An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  5
   4.  Architectural Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  6
     4.1.  Decoupled Control/Metadata and Data Planes . . . . . . . .  6
     4.2.  Immutable Data Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  7
     4.3.  Data Objects With Identifiers  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  8
     4.4.  Explicit Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
     4.5.  Resource and Data Access Control through Delegation  . . . 10
   5.  System Components  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
     5.1.  Content Distribution Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
     5.2.  DECADE Server  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
     5.3.  Data Sequencing and Naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
     5.4.  Token-based Authorization and Resource Control . . . . . . 17
     5.5.  Discovery  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
   6.  DECADE Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
     6.1.  DECADE Resource Protocol (DRP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
     6.2.  Standard Data Transfer (SDT) Protocol  . . . . . . . . . . 22
     6.3.  Server-to-Server Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
   7.  Security Considerations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
     7.1.  Threat: System Denial of Service Attacks . . . . . . . . . 25
     7.2.  Threat: Protocol Security  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
   8.  IANA Considerations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
   9.  Acknowledgments  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
   10. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
     10.1. Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
     10.2. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
   Appendix A.  In-Network Storage Components Mapped to DECADE
                Architecture  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
     A.1.  Data Access Interface  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
     A.2.  Data Management Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
     A.3.  Data Search Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
     A.4.  Access Control Authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
     A.5.  Resource Control Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
     A.6.  Discovery Mechanism  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
     A.7.  Storage Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
   Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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1.  Introduction

   Content Distribution Applications, such as Peer-to-Peer (P2P)
   applications, are widely used on the Internet to distribute data, and
   they contribute a large portion of the traffic in many networks.  The
   architecture described in this document enables such applications to
   leverage in-network storage to achieve more efficient content
   distribution (i.e.  DECADE-compatible system).  Specifically, in many
   subscriber networks, it can be expensive to upgrade network equipment
   in the "last-mile", because it can involve replacing equipment and
   upgrading wiring at individual homes, businesses, and devices such as
   DSLAMs (Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexers) and CMTSs (Cable
   Modem Termination Systems) in remote locations.  Therefore, it may be
   cheaper to upgrade the core infrastructure, which involves fewer
   components that are shared by many subscribers.  See [RFC6646] for a
   more complete discussion of the problem domain and general
   discussions of the capabilities to be provided by a DECADE-compatible
   system.

   This document presents an architecture for providing in-network
   storage that can be integrated into Content Distribution
   Applications.  The primary focus is P2P-based content distribution,
   but the architecture may be useful to other applications with similar
   characteristics and requirements.  See [I-D.ietf-decade-reqs] for a
   definition of the target applications as well as the requirements for
   a DECADE-compatible system.

   The approach of this document is to define the core functionalities
   and protocol functions that are needed to support a DECADE-compatible
   system.  The specific protocols are not selected or designed in this
   document.  Some illustrative examples are given to help the reader
   understand certain concepts.  These examples are purely informational
   and are not meant to constrain future protocol design or selection.

2.  Terminology

   This document assumes readers are familiar with the terms and
   concepts that are used in [RFC6646] and [I-D.ietf-decade-reqs].

3.  Protocol Flow

3.1.  Overview

   Following[I-D.ietf-decade-reqs], the architecture consists of two
   protocols: the DECADE Resource Protocol (DRP) that is responsible for
   communication of access control and resource scheduling policies from

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   a client to a server, as well as between servers; and Standard Data
   Transfer (SDT) protocol(s) that will be used to transfer data objects
   to and from a server.  We show the protocol components figure below:

                         Native Application
         .-------------.      Protocol(s)     .-------------.
         | Application | <------------------> | Application |
         |  End-Point  |                      |  End-Point  |
         |             |                      |             |
         | .--------.  |                      | .--------.  |
         | | DECADE |  |                      | | DECADE |  |
         | | Client |  |                      | | Client |  |
         | `--------'  |                      | `--------'  |
         `-------------'                      `-------------'
             |     ^                              |     ^
     DECADE  |     | Standard                     |     |
    Resource |     |   Data                   DRP |     | SDT
    Protocol |     | Transfer                     |     |
     (DRP)   |     |   (SDT)                      |     |
             |     |                              |     |
             |     |                              |     |
             |     |                              |     |
             |     |                              |     |
             |     |                              |     |
             |     |                              |     |
             v     V                              v     V
         .=============.         DRP          .=============.
         |   DECADE    | <------------------> |   DECADE    |
         |   Server    | <------------------> |   Server    |
         `============='         SDT          `============='

                      Figure 1: Generic Protocol Flow

3.2.  An Example

   This section provides an example showing the steps in the
   architecture for a data transfer scenario involving an in-network
   storage system.  We assume that Application End-Point B (the
   receiver) is requesting a data object from Application End-Point A
   (the sender).  Let S(A) denote the DECADE-compatible storage server
   to which A has access.  There are multiple usage scenarios (by choice
   of the Content Distribution Application).  For simplicity of
   introduction, we design this example to use only a single DECADE-
   compatible server.

   The steps of the example are illustrated in Figure 2.  First, B
   requests a data object from A using their native application protocol
   (see Section 5.1.2).  Next, A uses the DRP to obtain a token.  There

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   are multiple ways for A to obtain the token: compute locally, or
   request from its DECADE-compatible storage server, S(A).  See
   Section 6.1.2 for details.  A then provides the token to B (again,
   using their native application protocol).  Finally, B provides the
   token to S(A) via DRP, and requests and downloads the data object via
   a SDT.

                               .----------.
      2. Obtain      --------> |   S(A)   | <------
         Token      /          `----------'        \   4. Request and
         (DRP)     /                                \    Download Data
         Locally  /                                  \    Object
         or From /                                    \   (DRP + SDT)
         S(A)   v          1. App Request              v
       .-------------. <--------------------------- .-------------.
       | Application |                              | Application |
       | End-Point A |                              | End-Point B |
       `-------------' ---------------------------> `-------------'
                          3. App Response (token)

                  Figure 2: Download from Storage Server

4.  Architectural Principles

   We identify the following key principles that will be followed in any
   DECADE-compatible system:

4.1.  Decoupled Control/Metadata and Data Planes

   A DECADE-compatible system SHOULD be able to support multiple Content
   Distribution Applications.  A complete Content Distribution
   Application implements a set of "control plane" functions including
   content search, indexing and collection, access control, replication,
   request routing, and QoS scheduling.  Different Content Distribution
   Applications will have unique considerations designing the control
   plane functions:

   o  Metadata Management Scheme: Traditional file systems provide a
      standard metadata abstraction: a recursive structure of
      directories to offer namespace management; each file is an opaque
      byte stream.  Content Distribution Applications may use different
      metadata management schemes.  For example, one application might
      use a sequence of blocks (e.g., for file sharing), while another
      application might use a sequence of frames (with different sizes)
      indexed by time.

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   o  Resource Scheduling Algorithms: A major advantage of many
      successful P2P systems is their substantial expertise in achieving
      highly efficient utilization of peer and infrastructural
      resources.  For instance, many streaming P2P systems have their
      specific algorithms in constructing topologies to achieve low-
      latency, high-bandwidth streaming.  They continuously fine-tune
      such algorithms.

   Given the diversity of control plane functions, a DECADE-compatible
   system SHOULD allow as much flexibility as possible to the control
   plane to implement specific policies.  This conforms to the end-to-
   end systems principle and allows innovation and satisfaction of
   specific performance goals.

   Decoupling control plane and data plane is not new.  For example,
   OpenFlow [OpenFlow] is an implementation of this principle for
   Internet routing, where the computation of the forwarding table and
   the application of the forwarding table are separated.  Google File
   System [GoogleFileSystem] applies the principle to file system
   design, by utilizing the Master to handle the meta-data management,
   and the Chunk servers to handle the data plane functions (i.e., read
   and write of chunks of data).  NFSv4.1's pNFS extension [RFC5661]
   also implements this principle.

4.2.  Immutable Data Objects

   A property of bulk content to be broadly distributed is that they
   typically are immutable -- once content is generated, it is typically
   not modified.  It is not common that bulk content such as video
   frames and images need to be modified after distribution.

   Focusing on immutable data in the data plane can substantially
   simplify the data plane design, since consistency requirements can be
   relaxed.  It also simplifies reuse of data and implementation of de-
   duplication.

   Depending on its specific requirements, an application may store
   immutable data objects in DECADE-compatible servers such that each
   data object is completely self-contained (e.g., a complete,
   independently decodable video segment).  An application may also
   divide data into data objects that require application level
   assembly.  Many Content Distribution Applications divide bulk content
   into data objects for multiple reasons, including (1) fetching
   different data objects from different sources in parallel; and (2)
   faster recovery and verification: individual data objects might be
   recovered and verified.  Typically, applications use a data object
   size larger than a single packet in order to reduce control overhead.

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   A DECADE-compatible system SHOULD be agnostic to the nature of the
   data objects and SHOULD NOT specify a fixed size for them.  A
   protocol specification based on this architecture MAY prescribe
   requirements on minimum and maximum sizes by compliant
   implementations.

   Immutable data objects can still be deleted.  Applications may
   support modification of existing data stored at a DECADE-compatible
   server through a combination of storing new data objects and deleting
   existing data objects.  For example, a meta-data management function
   of the control plane might associate a name with a sequence of
   immutable data objects.  If one of the data objects is modified, the
   meta-data management function changes the mapping of the name to a
   new sequence of immutable data objects.

   Throughout this document, all data objects are assumed to be
   immutable.

4.3.  Data Objects With Identifiers

   An object that is stored in a DECADE-compatible storage server SHALL
   be accessed by Content Consumers via a data object identifier.

   A Content Consumer may be able to access more than one storage
   server.  A data object that is replicated across different storage
   servers managed by a DECADE-compatible Storage Provider MAY still be
   accessed by a single identifier.

   Since data objects are immutable, it SHALL be possible to support
   persistent identifiers for data objects.

   Data object identifiers for data objects SHOULD be created by Content
   Providers that upload the objects to servers.  We refer to a scheme
   for the assignment/derivation of the data object identifier to a data
   object depends as the data object naming scheme.  The details of data
   naming schemes will be provided by future DECADE-compatible protocol/
   naming specifications.  This document describes naming schemes on a
   semantic level and specific SDTs and DRPs SHOULD use specific
   representations.

   In particular, for some applications it is important that clients and
   servers SHOULD be able to validate the name-object binding for a data
   object, i.e., by verifying that a received object really corresponds
   to the name (identifier) that was used for requesting it (or that was
   provided by a sender).  Data object identifiers can support name-
   object binding validation by providing message digests or so-called
   self-certifying naming information -- if a specific application has
   this requirement.

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   A DECADE-compatible naming scheme follows the following general
   requirements:

   o  Different name-object binding validation mechanisms MAY be
      supported;

   o  Content Distribution Applications will decide what mechanism to
      use, or to not provide name-object validation (e.g., if
      authenticity and integrity can by ascertained by alternative
      means);

   o  Applications MAY be able to construct unique names (with high
      probability) without requiring a registry or other forms of
      coordination; and

   o  Names MAY be self-describing so that a receiving entity (Content
      Consumer) knows what hash function (for example) to use for
      validating name-object binding.

   Some Content Distribution Applications will derive the name of a data
   object from the hash over the data object, which is made possible by
   the fact that DECADE-compatible objects are immutable.  But there may
   be other applications such as live streaming where object names will
   not based on hashes but rather on an enumeration scheme.  The naming
   scheme will also enable those applications to construct unique names.

   In order to enable the uniqueness, flexibility and self-describing
   properties, the naming scheme SHOULD provide the following name
   elements:

   o  A "type" field that indicates the name-object validation function
      type (for example, "sha-256");

   o  Cryptographic data (such as an object hash) that corresponds to
      the type information; and

   The naming scheme MAY additionally provide the following name
   elements:

   o  Application or publisher information.

   The specific format of the name (e.g., encoding, hash algorithms,
   etc) is out of scope of this document, and is left for protocol
   specification.

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4.4.  Explicit Control

   To support the functions of an application's control plane,
   applications SHOULD be able to know and coordinate which data is
   stored at particular servers.  Thus, in contrast with traditional
   caches, applications are given explicit control over the placement
   (selection of a DECADE-compatible server), deletion (or expiration
   policy), and access control for stored data.

   Consider deletion/expiration policy as a simple example.  An
   application might require that a server stores data objects for a
   relatively short period of time (e.g., for live-streaming data).
   Another application might need to store data objects for a longer
   duration (e.g., for video-on-demand).

4.5.  Resource and Data Access Control through Delegation

   A DECADE-compatible system will provide a shared infrastructure to be
   used by multiple Content Consumers and Content Providers spanning
   multiple Content Distribution Applications.  Thus, it needs to
   provide both resource and data access control.

4.5.1.  Resource Allocation

   There are two primary interacting entities in a DECADE-compatible
   system.  First, Storage Providers SHOULD coordinate where storage
   servers are provisioned and their total available resources
   Section 6.1.1.  Second, Applications will coordinate data transfers
   amongst available servers and between servers and clients.  A form of
   isolation is required to enable concurrently-running Applications to
   each explicitly manage its own data objects and share of resources at
   the available servers.

   The Storage Provider SHOULD delegate the management of the resources
   on a server to Content Providers.  This means that Content Providers
   are able to explicitly and independently manage their own shares of
   resources on a server.

4.5.2.  User Delegations

   Storage Providers will have the ability to explicitly manage the
   entities allowed to utilize the resources at a DECADE-compatible
   server.  This capability is needed for reasons such as capacity-
   planning and legal considerations in certain deployment scenarios.

   The server SHOULD grant a share of the resources to a Content
   Provider or Content Consumer.  The client can in turn share the
   granted resources amongst its multiple applications.  The share of

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   resources granted by a server is called a User Delegation.

   As a simple example, a DECADE-compatible server operated by an ISP
   might be configured to grant each ISP Subscriber 1.5 Mbit/s of
   bandwidth.  The ISP Subscriber might in turn divide this share of
   resources amongst a video streaming application and file-sharing
   application which are running concurrently.

5.  System Components

   The primary focus of this document is the architectural principles
   and the system components that implement them.  While certain system
   components might differ amongst implementations, the document details
   the major components and their overall roles in the architecture.

   To keep the scope narrow, we only discuss the primary components
   related to protocol development.  Particular deployments will require
   additional components (e.g., monitoring and accounting at a server),
   but they are intentionally omitted from this document.

5.1.  Content Distribution Application

   Content Distribution Applications have many functional components.
   For example, many P2P applications have components and algorithms to
   manage overlay topology management, rate allocation, piece selection,
   etc.  In this document, we focus on the components directly employed
   to support a DECADE-compatible system.

   Figure 3 illustrates the components discussed in this section from
   the perspective of a single Application End-Point.

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                                    Native Protocol(s)
                            (with other Application End-Points)
                                    .--------------------->
                                    |
                                    |
   .----------------------------------------------------------.
   | Application End-Point                                    |
   | .------------.                 .-------------------.     |
   | | App-Layer  |   ...           | App Data Assembly |     |
   | | Algorithms |                 |    Sequencing     |     |
   | `------------'                 `-------------------'     |
   |                                                          |
   | .------------------------------------------------------. |
   | | DECADE Client                                        | |
   | |                                                      | |
   | | .-------------------------. .----------------------. | |
   | | | Resource Controller     | | Data Controller      | | |
   | | | .--------. .----------. | | .--------. .-------. | | |
   | | | |  Data  | | Resource | | | |  Data  | | Data  | | | |
   | | | | Access | | Sharing  | | | | Sched. | | Index | | | |
   | | | | Policy | |  Policy  | | | |        | |       | | | |
   | | | '--------' `----------' | | `--------' `-------' | | |
   | | `-------------------------' `----------------------' | |
   | |             |                   ^                    | |
   | `------------ | ----------------- | -------------------' |
   `-------------- | ----------------- | ---------------------'
                   |                   |
                   |  DECADE           | Standard
                   | Resource          |   Data
                   | Protocol          | Transfer
                   |   (DRP)           |   (SDT)
                   v                   V

                     Figure 3: Application Components

5.1.1.  Data Assembly

   A DECADE-compatible system is geared towards supporting applications
   that can distribute content using data objects.  To accomplish this,
   applications can include a component responsible for creating the
   individual data objects before distribution and then re-assembling
   data objects at the Content Consumer.  We call this component the
   Application Data Assembly.

   In producing and assembling the data objects, two important
   considerations are sequencing and naming.  A DECADE-compatible system
   assumes that applications implement this functionality themselves.
   See Section 5.3 for further discussion.

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5.1.2.  Native Application Protocols

   In addition to the DECADE-compatible DRP/SDT, applications can also
   support existing native application protocols (e.g., P2P control and
   data transfer protocols).

5.1.3.  DECADE Client

   The client provides the local support to an application, and can be
   implemented standalone, embedded into the application, or integrated
   in other entities such as network devices themselves.

5.1.3.1.  Resource Controller

   Applications may have different Resource Sharing Policies and Data
   Access Policies to control their resource and data in DECADE-
   compatible servers.  These policies may be existing policies of
   applications or custom policies.  The specific implementation is
   decided by the application.

5.1.3.2.  Data Controller

   A DECADE-compatible system decouples the control and the data
   transfer of applications.  A Data Scheduling component schedules data
   transfers according to network conditions, available servers, and/or
   available server resources.  The Data Index indicates data available
   at remote servers.  The Data Index (or a subset of it) can be
   advertised to other clients.  A common use case for this is to
   provide the ability to locate data amongst distributed Application
   End-Points (i.e., a data search mechanism such as a Distributed Hash
   Table).

5.2.  DECADE Server

   Figure 4 illustrates the components discussed in a DECADE-compatible
   server.  A server is not necessarily a single physical machine, it
   can also be implemented as a cluster of machines.

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          |                   |
          |  DECADE           | Standard
          | Resource          |   Data
          | Protocol          | Transfer
          |   (DRP)           |   (SDT)
          |                   |
       .= | ================= | ======================.
       |  |                   v                       |
       |  |      .----------------.                   |
       |  |----> | Access Control | <--------.        |
       |  |      `----------------'          |        |
       |  |                   ^              |        |
       |  |                   |              |        |
       |  |                   v              |        |
       |  |   .---------------------.        |        |
       |  `-> | Resource Scheduling | <------|        |
       |      `---------------------'        |        |
       |                      ^              |        |
       |                      |              |        |
       |                      v        .------------. |
       |        .-----------------.    |    User    | |
       |        |    Data Store   |    | Delegation | |
       |        `-----------------'    | Management | |
       | DECADE Server                 `------------' |
       `=============================================='

                    Figure 4: DECADE Server Components

5.2.1.  Access Control

   A client SHALL be able to access its own data or other client's data
   (provided sufficient authorization) in DECADE-compatible servers.
   Clients MAY also authorize other clients to store data.  If an access
   is authorized by a client, the server SHOULD provide access.  Even if
   a request is authorized, it MAY still fail to complete due to
   insufficient resources at the server.

5.2.2.  Resource Scheduling

   Applications will apply resource sharing policies or use a custom
   policy.  Servers perform resource scheduling according to the
   resource sharing policies indicated by clients as well as configured
   User Delegations.

5.2.3.  Data Store

   Data from applications will be stored at a DECADE-compatible server.
   Data may be deleted from storage either explicitly or automatically

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   (e.g., after a TTL expiration).

5.3.  Data Sequencing and Naming

   In order to provide a simple and generic interface, the DECADE-
   compatible server will be responsible only for storing and retrieving
   individual data objects.  Furthermore, a DECADE-compatible system
   will use its own naming scheme that provides uniqueness (with high
   probability) between data objects, even across multiple applications.

5.3.1.  Data Object Naming Scheme

   Details of the naming scheme are discussed in Section 5.3.

5.3.2.  Application Usage

   Recall from Section 5.1.1 that an Application typically includes its
   own naming and sequencing scheme.  The DECADE-compatible naming
   format SHOULD NOT attempt to replace any naming or sequencing of data
   objects already performed by an Application; instead, the naming is
   intended to apply only to data objects referenced by DECADE-specific
   purposes.

   An Application using a DECADE-compatible client may use a naming and
   sequencing scheme independent of DECADE-compatible names.  The
   DECADE-compatible client SHOULD maintain a mapping from its own data
   objects and their names to the DECADE-specific data objects and
   names.  Furthermore, the DECADE-compatible naming scheme implies no
   sequencing or grouping of objects, even if this is done at the
   application layer.

5.3.3.  Application Usage Example

   To illustrate these properties, this section presents multiple
   examples.

5.3.3.1.  Application with Fixed-Size Chunks

   Similar to the example in Section 5.1.1, consider an Application in
   which each individual application-layer segment of data is called a
   "chunk" and has a name of the form: "CONTENT_ID:SEQUENCE_NUMBER".
   Furthermore, assume that the application's native protocol uses
   chunks of size 16 KiB.

   Now, assume that this application wishes to store data in DECADE-
   compatible servers in data objects of size 64 KiB.  To accomplish
   this, it can map a sequence of 4 chunks into a single data object, as
   shown in Figure 5.

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     Application Chunks
   .---------.---------.---------.---------.---------.---------.--------
   |         |         |         |         |         |         |
   | Chunk_0 | Chunk_1 | Chunk_2 | Chunk_3 | Chunk_4 | Chunk_5 | Chunk_6
   |         |         |         |         |         |         |
   `---------`---------`---------`---------`---------`---------`--------

     DECADE Data Objects
   .---------------------------------------.----------------------------
   |                                       |
   |               Object_0                |               Object_1
   |                                       |
   `---------------------------------------`----------------------------

        Figure 5: Mapping Application Chunks to DECADE Data Objects

   In this example, the Application maintains a logical mapping that is
   able to determine the name of a DECADE-compatible data object given
   the chunks contained within that data object.  The name may be
   learned from either the original Content Provider, another End-Point
   with which the Application is communicating, etc.  As long as the
   data contained within each sequence of chunks is globally unique, the
   corresponding data objects have globally unique names.

5.3.3.2.  Application with Continuous Streaming Data

   Consider an Application whose native protocol retrieves a continuous
   data stream (e.g., an MPEG2 stream) instead of downloading and
   redistributing chunks of data.  Such an application could segment the
   continuous data stream to produce either fixed-sized or variable-
   sized data objects.

   Figure 6 shows how a video streaming application might produce
   variable-sized data objects such that each data object contains 10
   seconds of video data.

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     Application's Video Stream
   .--------------------------------------------------------------------
   |
   |
   |
   `--------------------------------------------------------------------
   ^              ^              ^              ^              ^
   |              |              |              |              |
   0 Seconds     10 Seconds     20 Seconds     30 Seconds     40 Seconds
   0 B           400 KiB        900 KiB        1200 KiB       1500 KiB

     DECADE Data Objects
   .--------------.--------------.--------------.--------------.--------
   |              |              |              |              |
   |   Object_0   |   Object_1   |   Object_2   |   Object_3   |
   |   (400 KiB)  |   (500 KiB)  |   (300 KiB)  |   (300 KiB)  |
   `--------------`--------------`--------------`--------------`--------

     Figure 6: Mapping a Continuous Data Stream to DECADE Data Objects

   Similar to the previous example, the Application might maintain a
   mapping that is able to determine the name of a data object given the
   time offset of the video chunk.

5.4.  Token-based Authorization and Resource Control

   A key feature of a DECADE-compatible system is that a client can
   authorize other clients to store or retrieve data objects from the
   in-network storage.  A token-based authorization scheme is used to
   accomplish this.

   Specifically, an entity trusted by a client generates a signed token
   with particular properties (see Section 6.1.2 for details).  The
   client then distributes this token to other clients which then use
   the token when sending requests to the DECADE-compatible server.
   Upon receiving a token, the server validates the signature and the
   operation being performed.

   This is a simple scheme, but has some important advantages over an
   alternative approach in which a client explicitly manipulates an
   Access Control List (ACL) associated with each data object.  In
   particular, it has the following advantages when applied to DECADE-
   compatible target applications:

   o  Authorization policies are implemented within the Application; an
      Application explicitly controls when tokens are generated and to

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      whom they are distributed and for how long they will be valid.

   o  Fine-grained access and resource control can be applied to data
      objects; see Section 6.1.2 for the list of restrictions that can
      be enforced with a token.

   o  There is no messaging between a client and server to manipulate
      data object permissions.  This can simplify, in particular,
      Applications which share data objects with many dynamic peers and
      need to frequently adjust access control policies attached to data
      objects.

   o  Tokens can provide anonymous access, in which a server does not
      need to know the identity of each client that accesses it.  This
      enables a client to send tokens to clients belonging to other
      Storage Providers, and allow them to read or write data objects
      from the storage of its own Storage Provider.

   In addition to clients applying access control policies to data
   objects, the server MAY be configured to apply additional policies
   based on user, object, geographic location, etc.  A client might thus
   be denied access even though it possesses a valid token.

   There are existing protocols (e.g., OAuth [RFC5849]) that implement
   similar referral mechanisms using tokens.  A protocol specification
   of this architecture SHOULD endeavor to use existing mechanisms
   wherever possible.

5.5.  Discovery

   A DECADE-compatible system SHOULD include a discovery mechanism
   through which clients locate an appropriate server.
   [I-D.ietf-decade-reqs] details specific requirements of the discovery
   mechanism; this section discusses how they relate to other principles
   outlined in this document.

   A discovery mechanism SHOULD allow a client to determine an IP
   address or some other identifier that can be resolved to locate the
   server for which the client will be authorized to generate tokens
   (via DRP).  (The discovery mechanism might also result in an error if
   no such servers can be located.)  After discovering one or more
   servers, a client can distribute load and requests across them
   (subject to resource limitations and policies of the servers
   themselves) according to the policies of the Application End-Point in
   which it is embedded.

   The particular protocol used for discovery is out of scope of this
   document, but any specification SHOULD re-use standard protocols

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   wherever possible.

   The discovery mechanism outlined here does not provide the ability to
   locate arbitrary DECADE-compatible servers to which a client might
   obtain tokens from others.  To do so will require application-level
   knowledge, and it is assumed that this functionality is implemented
   in the Content Distribution Application.

6.  DECADE Protocols

   This section presents the DRP and the SDT protocol in terms of
   abstract protocol interactions that are intended to be mapped to
   specific protocols.  In general, the DRP/SDT functionality between a
   DECADE-compatible client-server are very similar to the DRP/SDT
   functionality between server-server.  Any differences are highlighted
   below.

   DRP will be the protocol used by a DECADE-compatible client to
   configure the resources and authorization used to satisfy requests
   (reading, writing, and management operations concerning data objects)
   at a server.  SDT will be used to transport data between a client and
   a server.

6.1.  DECADE Resource Protocol (DRP)

   DRP will provide configuration of access control and resource sharing
   policies on DECADE-compatible servers.  A Content Distribution
   Application, e.g., a live P2P streaming session, can have permission
   to manage data at several servers, for instance, servers belonging to
   different Storage Providers, and DRP allows one instance of such an
   application, e.g., an Application End-Point, to apply access control
   and resource sharing policies on each of them.

6.1.1.  Controlled Resources

   On a single DECADE-compatible server, the following resources SHOULD
   be managed:

   o  Communication resources in terms of bandwidth (upload/download)
      and also in terms of number of active clients (simultaneous
      connections).

   o  Storage resources.

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6.1.2.  Access and Resource Control Token

   A token SHOULD include the following information:

   o  Server providing the service;

   o  Permitted operations (e.g., read, write);

   o  Permitted objects (e.g., names of data objects that might be read
      or written);

   o  Expiration time;

   o  Priority for bandwidth given to requested operation (e.g., a
      weight used in a weighted bandwidth sharing scheme);

   o  Amount of data that might be read or written.

   The tokens SHOULD be generated by an entity trusted by both the
   DECADE-compatible client and server at the request of a DECADE-
   compatible client.  For example this entity could be the client, a
   server trusted by the client, or another server managed by a Storage
   Provider and trusted by the client.  It is important for a server to
   trust the entity generating the tokens since each token may incur a
   resource cost on the server when used.  Likewise, it is important for
   a client to trust the entity generating the tokens since the tokens
   grant access to the data stored at the server.

   Upon generating a token, a client MAY distribute it to another client
   (e.g., via their native application protocol).  The receiving client
   MAY then connect to the server specified in the token and perform any
   operation permitted by the token.  The token SHOULD be sent along
   with the operation.  The server SHOULD validate the token to identify
   the client that issued it and whether the requested operation is
   permitted by the contents of the token.  If the token is successfully
   validated, the server SHOULD apply the resource control policies
   indicated in the token while performing the operation.

   Tokens SHOULD include a unique identifier to allow a server to detect
   when a token is used multiple times and reject the additional usage
   attempts.  Since usage of a token incurs resource costs to a server
   (e.g., bandwidth and storage) and a Content Provider may have a
   limited budget (see Section 4.5), the Content Provider should be able
   to indicate if a token may be used multiple times.

   It SHOULD be possible to revoke tokens after they are generated.
   This could be accomplished by supplying the server the unique
   identifiers of the tokens which are to be revoked.

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6.1.3.  Status Information

   DRP SHOULD provide a status request service that clients can use to
   request status information of a server.

6.1.3.1.  Status Information on a specific server

   Access to such status information SHOULD require client
   authorization; that is, clients need to be authorized to access the
   requested status information.  This authorization is based on the
   user delegation concept as described in Section 4.5.  The following
   status information elements SHOULD be obtained:

   o  List of associated data objects (with properties);

   o  Resources used/available.

   The following information elements MAY additionally be available:

   o  List of servers to which data objects have been distributed (in a
      certain time-frame);

   o  List of clients to which data objects have been distributed (in a
      certain time-frame).

   For the list of servers/clients to which data objects have been
   distributed to, the server SHOULD be able to decide on time bounds
   for which this information is stored and specify the corresponding
   time frame in the response to such requests.  Some of this
   information may be used for accounting purposes, e.g., the list of
   clients to which data objects have been distributed.

6.1.3.2.  Access information on a specific server

   Access information MAY be provided for accounting purposes, for
   example, when Content Providers are interested in access statistics
   for resources and/or to perform accounting per user.  Again, access
   to such information requires client authorization and SHOULD based on
   the delegation concept as described in Section 4.5.  The following
   type of access information elements MAY be requested:

   o  What data objects have been accessed by whom and for how many
      times;

   o  Access tokens that a server as seen for a given data object.

   The server SHOULD decide on time bounds for which this information is
   stored and specify the corresponding time frame in the response to

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   such requests.

6.1.4.  Data Object Attributes

   Data Objects that are stored on a DECADE-compatible server SHOULD
   have associated attributes (in addition to the object identifier and
   data object) that relate to the data storage and its management.
   These attributes may be used by the server (and possibly the
   underlying storage system) to perform specialized processing or
   handling for the data object, or to attach related server or storage-
   layer properties to the data object.  These attributes have a scope
   local to a server.  In particular, these attributes SHOULD NOT be
   applied to a server or client to which a data object is copied.

   Depending on authorization, clients SHOULD be permitted to get or set
   such attributes.  This authorization is based on the delegation
   concept as described in Section 4.5.  The architecture does not limit
   the set of permissible attributes, but rather specifies a set of
   baseline attributes that SHOULD be supported:

   Expiration Time:  Time at which the data object can be deleted;

   Data Object size:  In bytes;

   Media type  Labelling of type as per [RFC4288];

   Access statistics:  How often the data object has been accessed (and
      what tokens have been used).

   The data object attributes defined here are distinct from application
   metadata (see Section 4.1).  Application metadata is custom
   information that an application might wish to associate with a data
   object to understand its semantic meaning (e.g., whether it is video
   and/or audio, its playback length in time, or its index in a stream).
   If an application wishes to store such metadata persistently, it can
   be stored within data objects themselves.

6.2.  Standard Data Transfer (SDT) Protocol

   A DECADE-compatible server will provide a data access interface, and
   the SDT will be used to write data objects to a server and to read
   (download) data objects from a server.  Semantically, SDT is a
   client-server protocol; that is, the server always responds to client
   requests.

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6.2.1.  Writing/Uploading Objects

   To write a data object, a client first generates the object's name
   (see Section 5.3), and then uploads the object to a server and
   supplies the generated name.  The name can be used to access
   (download) the object later; for example, the client can pass the
   name as a reference to other client that can then refer to the
   object.

   Data objects can be self-contained objects such as multimedia
   resources, files etc., but also chunks, such as chunks of a P2P
   distribution protocol that can be part of a containing object or a
   stream.

   The application that originates the data objects generates DECADE-
   compatible object names according to the naming specification in
   Section 5.3.  Clients (as parts of application entities) upload a
   named object to a server.  If supported, a server can verify the
   integrity and other security properties of uploaded objects.

6.2.2.  Downloading Data Objects

   A client can request named data objects from a server.  In a
   corresponding request message, a client specifies the object name and
   a suitable access and resource control token.  The server checks the
   validity of the received token and its associated resource usage-
   related properties.

   If the named data object exists on the server and the token can be
   validated, the server delivers the requested object in a response
   message.

   If the data object cannot be delivered the server provides an
   corresponding status/reason information in a response message.

   Specifics regarding error handling, including additional error
   conditions (e.g., overload), precedence for returned errors and its
   relation with server policy, are deferred to eventual protocol
   specification.

6.3.  Server-to-Server Protocols

   An important feature of a DECADE-compatible system is the capability
   for one server to directly download data objects from another server.
   This capability allows Applications to directly replicate data
   objects between servers without requiring end-hosts to use uplink
   capacity to upload data objects to a different server.

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   DRP and SDT will support operations directly between servers.
   Servers are not assumed to trust each other nor are configured to do
   so.  All data operations are performed on behalf of clients via
   explicit instruction.  However, the objects being processed do not
   necessarily have to originate or terminate at the client (i.e., the
   data object might be limited to being exchanged between servers even
   if the instruction is triggered by the client).  Clients thus will be
   able to indicate to a server the following additional parameters:

   o  Which remote server(s) to access;

   o  The operation to be performed;

   o  The Content Provider at the remote server from which to retrieve
      the data object, or in which the object is to be stored; and

   o  Credentials indicating access and resource control to perform the
      operation at the remote server.

   Server-to-server support is focused on reading and writing data
   objects between servers.  The data object referred to at the remote
   server is the same as the original data object requested by the
   client.  Object attributes (see Section 6.1.4) might also be
   specified in the request to the remote server.

   In this way, a server acts as a proxy for a client, and a client can
   instantiate requests via that proxy.  The operations will be
   performed as if the original requester had its own client co-located
   with the server.

   When a client sends a request to a server with these additional
   parameters, it is giving the server permission to act (proxy) on its
   behalf.  Thus, it would be prudent for the supplied token to have
   narrow privileges (e.g., limited to only the necessary data objects)
   or validity time (e.g., a small expiration time).

   In the case of a retrieval operation, the server is to retrieve the
   data object from the remote server using the specified credentials,
   and then optionally return the object to a client.  In the case of a
   storage operation, the server is to store the object to the remote
   server using the specified credentials.  The object might optionally
   be uploaded from the client or might already exist at the proxy
   server.

7.  Security Considerations

   In general, the security considerations mentioned in [RFC6646] apply

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   to this document as well.

   A DECADE-compatible system provides a distributed storage service for
   content distribution and similar applications.  The system consists
   of servers and clients that use these servers to upload data objects,
   to request distribution of data objects, and to download data
   objects.  Such a system is employed in an overall application context
   -- for example in a P2P Content Distribution Application, and it is
   expected that DECADE-compatible clients take part in application-
   specific communication sessions.

   The security considerations here focus on threats related to the
   DECADE-compatible system and its communication services, i.e., the
   DRP/SDT protocols that have been described in an abstract fashion in
   this document.

7.1.  Threat: System Denial of Service Attacks

   A DECADE-compatible network might be used to distribute data objects
   from one client to a set of servers using the server-to-server
   communication feature that a client can request when uploading an
   object.  Multiple clients uploading many objects at different servers
   at the same time and requesting server-to-server distribution for
   them could thus mount massive distributed denial of service (DDOS)
   attacks, overloading a network of servers.

   This threat is addressed by the server's access control and resource
   control framework.  Servers can require Application End-Points to be
   authorized to store and to download objects, and Application End-
   Points can delegate authorization to other Application End-Points
   using the token mechanism.

   Of course the effective security of this approach depends on the
   strength of the token mechanism.  See below for a discussion of this
   and related communication security threats.

   Denial of Service Attacks against a single server (directing many
   requests to that server) might still lead to considerable load for
   processing requests and invalidating tokens.  SDT therefore MUST
   provide a redirection mechanism as described as a requirement in
   [I-D.ietf-decade-reqs].

7.2.  Threat: Protocol Security

7.2.1.  Threat: Authorization Mechanisms Compromised

   A DECADE-compatible system does not require Application End-Points to
   authenticate in order to access a server for downloading objects,

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   since authorization is not based on End-Point or user identities but
   on the delegation-based authorization mechanism.  Hence, most
   protocol security threats are related to the authorization scheme.

   The security of the token mechanism depends on the strength of the
   token mechanism and on the secrecy of the tokens.  A token can
   represent authorization to store a certain amount of data, to
   download certain objects, to download a certain amount of data per
   time etc.  If it is possible for an attacker to guess, construct or
   simply obtain tokens, the integrity of the data maintained by the
   servers is compromised.

   This is a general security threat that applies to authorization
   delegation schemes.  Specifications of existing delegation schemes
   such as OAuth [RFC5849] discuss these general threats in detail.  We
   can say that the DRP has to specify appropriate algorithms for token
   generation.  Moreover, authorization tokens should have a limited
   validity period that should be specified by the application.  Token
   confidentiality should be provided by application protocols that
   carry tokens, and the SDT and DRP should provide secure
   (confidential) communication modes.

7.2.2.  Threat: Data Object Spoofing

   In a DECADE-compatible system, an Application End-Point is referring
   other Application End-Points to servers to download a specified data
   objects.  An attacker could "inject" a faked version of the object
   into this process, so that the downloading End-Point effectively
   receives a different object (compared to what the uploading End-Point
   provided).  As result, the downloading End-Point believes that is has
   received an object that corresponds to the name it was provided
   earlier, whereas in fact it is a faked object.  Corresponding attacks
   could be mounted against the application protocol (that is used for
   referring other End-Points to servers), servers themselves (and their
   storage sub-systems), and the SDT by which the object is uploaded,
   distributed and downloaded.

   A DECADE-compatible systems fundamental mechanism against object
   spoofing is name-object binding validation, i.e., the ability of a
   receiver to check whether the name he was provided and that he used
   to request an object, actually corresponds to the bits he received.
   As described above, this allows for different forms of name-object
   binding, for example using hashes of data objects, with different
   hash functions (different algorithms, different digest lengths).  For
   those application scenarios where hashes of data objects are not
   applicable (for example live-streaming) other forms of name-object
   binding can be used (see Section 5.3).  This flexibility also
   addresses cryptographic algorithm evolvability: hash functions might

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   get deprecated, better alternatives might be invented etc., so that
   applications can choose appropriate mechanisms meeting their security
   requirements.

   DECADE-compatible servers MAY perform name-object binding validation
   on stored objects, but Application End-Points MUST NOT rely on that.
   In other words, Application End-Points SHOULD perform name-object
   binding validation on received objects.

8.  IANA Considerations

   This document does not have any IANA considerations.

9.  Acknowledgments

   We thank the following people for their contributions to and/or
   detailed reviews of this document:

   Carsten Bormann

   David Bryan

   Dave Crocker

   Yingjie Gu

   David Harrington

   Hongqiang (Harry) Liu

   David McDysan

   Borje Ohlman

   Konstantinos Pentikousis

   Haibin Song

   Martin Stiemerling

   Richard Woundy

   Ning Zong

10.  References

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10.1.  Normative References

   [RFC2119]  Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
              Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119, March 1997.

   [RFC6646]  Song, H., Zong, N., Yang, Y., and R. Alimi, "DECoupled
              Application Data Enroute (DECADE) Problem Statement",
              RFC 6646, July 2012.

   [I-D.ietf-decade-reqs]
              Yingjie, G., Bryan, D., Yang, Y., Zhang, P., and R. Alimi,
              "DECADE Requirements", draft-ietf-decade-reqs-08 (work in
              progress), August 2012.

10.2.  Informative References

   [RFC4288]  Freed, N. and J. Klensin, "Media Type Specifications and
              Registration Procedures", BCP 13, RFC 4288, December 2005.

   [RFC5661]  Shepler, S., Eisler, M., and D. Noveck, "Network File
              System (NFS) Version 4 Minor Version 1 Protocol",
              RFC 5661, January 2010.

   [RFC5849]  Hammer-Lahav, E., "The OAuth 1.0 Protocol", RFC 5849,
              April 2010.

   [RFC6392]  Alimi, R., Rahman, A., and Y. Yang, "A Survey of In-
              Network Storage Systems", RFC 6392, October 2011.

   [OpenFlow]
              "OpenFlow Organization", <http://www.openflow.org/>.

   [GoogleFileSystem]
              Ghemawat, S., Gobioff, H., and S. Leung, "The Google File
              System", SOSP 2003, October 2003.

Appendix A.  In-Network Storage Components Mapped to DECADE Architecture

   In this section we evaluate how the basic components of an in-network
   storage system identified in Section 3 of [RFC6392] map into a
   DECADE-compatible system.

A.1.  Data Access Interface

   Clients can read and write objects of arbitrary size through the
   client's Data Controller, making use of a SDT.

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A.2.  Data Management Operations

   Clients can move or delete previously stored objects via the client's
   Data Controller, making use of a SDT.

A.3.  Data Search Capability

   Clients can enumerate or search contents of servers to find objects
   matching desired criteria through services provided by the Content
   Distribution Application (e.g., buffer-map exchanges, a DHT, or peer-
   exchange).  In doing so, Application End-Points might consult their
   local Data Index in the client's Data Controller.

A.4.  Access Control Authorization

   All methods of access control are supported: public-unrestricted,
   public-restricted and private.  Access Control Policies are generated
   by a Content Distribution Application and provided to the client's
   Resource Controller.  The server is responsible for implementing the
   access control checks.

A.5.  Resource Control Interface

   Clients can manage the resources (e.g., bandwidth) on the DECADE
   server that can be used by other Application End-Points.  Resource
   Sharing Policies are generated by a Content Distribution Application
   and provided to the client's Resource Controller.  The server is
   responsible for implementing the resource sharing policies.

A.6.  Discovery Mechanism

   The particular protocol used for discovery is outside the scope of
   this document.  However, options and considerations have been
   discussed in Section 5.5.

A.7.  Storage Mode

   Servers provide an object-based storage mode.  Immutable data objects
   might be stored at a server.  Applications might consider existing
   blocks as data objects, or they might adjust block sizes before
   storing in a server.

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Internet-Draft             DECADE Architecture               August 2012

Authors' Addresses

   Richard Alimi
   Google

   Email: ralimi@google.com

   Akbar Rahman
   InterDigital Communications, LLC

   Email: akbar.rahman@interdigital.com

   Dirk Kutscher
   NEC

   Email: dirk.kutscher@neclab.eu

   Y. Richard Yang
   Yale University

   Email: yry@cs.yale.edu

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